More than Fishy Business: A Literature Review of marine parks

by Melissa Nursey-Bray

more than ﬁshy business A literature review on the beneﬁts of marine parks By Dr. Melissa Nursey-Bray January 2011 1 more than ﬁshy business by Dr. Melissa Nursey-Bray January 2011 Dr. Melissa Nursey-Bray is a Senior Lecturer from the Department of Geography, Environment and Population at The University of Adelaide and a member of the World Congress of Protected Areas. Dr. Nursey-Bray has 15 years of experience working in marine and ﬁsheries management and produced this desk-top study voluntarily and in her own time. For more information on Dr. Nursey-Bray please see http://adelaide.academia.edu/MelissaNurseyBray/ About or http://www.adelaide.edu.au/directory/melissa.nursey-bray Disclaimer: This report has been produced with the best available data at the time of publication. The report has been produced as academic research to enhance public understanding and demonstrate the depth of research conducted on how MPAs have performed. The author accepts no liability for any decisions made on the basis of this study and decisions made on the basis of this study are solely the responsibility of those who make them. 2 Contents 1. Introduction....................................................................................................................................................................................................4 2. Design................................................................................................................................................................................................................4 3. MPA Design......................................................................................................................................................................................................5 4. Integrating knowledge systems...............................................................................................................................................................7 5. Socio-economic conditions........................................................................................................................................................................7 6. Evaluation, monitoring and adaptation.................................................................................................................................................8 7. Community based management.............................................................................................................................................................8 8. MPAs and ﬁsheries.........................................................................................................................................................................................9 8.1. Extraction and conservation...................................................................................................................................................................9 8.2. Beneﬁts to ﬁsheries....................................................................................................................................................................................9 9. Conclusion......................................................................................................................................................................................................17 10. Other references........................................................................................................................................................................................18 List of Tables 1. IUCN levels of protection............................................................................................................................................................................6 2. Evaluating eﬀectiveness..............................................................................................................................................................................8 3. Examples of eﬀectiveness of MPAs for ﬁsheries..............................................................................................................................10 3 more than ﬁshy business 1. Introduction The concept of protected areas has evolved over time to become central to the idea of protection of our land and marine resources. Marine Protected Areas (hereafter MPAs) are designed to: (i) maintain essential ecological processes and life support systems; (ii) preserve genetic diversity; and (iii) ensure the sustainable utilization of species and ecosystems (IUCN 1994). They are oﬃcially deﬁned by the IUCN as: “An area of land and/or sea especially dedicated to the protection of biological diversity, and of natural and associated cultural resources, and managed through legal or other eﬀective means” (IUCN, 1994). This review provides an international overview of the design, principles, socio-economic conditions, and diﬀerent models for MPAs. While it is acknowledged that the beneﬁts of MPAs occur for many sectors and industries, this review explicitly highlights the beneﬁts of MPAs to ﬁshing. 2. Design How decisions are made about what the MPA will protect forms the back bone of how it will operate in the future. Two elements are usually considered when designing an MPA. The ﬁrst is how to classify the environmental and other values of the region so that protection is designed according to what is known as the Comprehensive, Adequate and Representative (CAR) system. CAR requires an MPA system that meets the criteria of being: (i) Comprehensive; (ii) Adequate; and (iii) Representative. These terms have been deﬁned by the World Conservation Union (IUCN) World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA) as part of the campaign to promote the establishment of a global representative system of marine protected areas (MPAs) as shown in Box 1. Comprehensiveness The MPA will include the full range of ecosystems recognised at an appropriate scale within and across each bioregion. Adequacy The MPA will have the required level of reservation to ensure the ecological viability and integrity of populations, species and communities. Representative Those marine areas that are selected for inclusion in MPAs should reasonably reﬂect the biotic diversity of the marine ecosystems from which they derive (ANZECC 1998). Secondly, in order to achieve the best combination of each of these three elements, nations often pursue the establishment of a network of marine protected areas, thus capturing to the best possible extent the widest protection across all habitats and bioregions. Australia for example, has committed to the 4 National Representative System of Marine Protected Areas (NRSMPA) in line with the CAR principles. Speciﬁcally, the ANZECC guidelines on MPAs (ANZECC 1998, 4) determine that MPAs must be: “Established especially for the conservation of biodiversity (consistent with the primary goal); is able to be classiﬁed into one or more of the six IUCN Protected Area Management Categories reﬂecting the values and objectives of the MPA; must have secure status which can only be revoked by a Parliamentary process; and contributes to the representativeness, comprehensiveness or adequacy of the national system”. 3. MPA Design The design of MPAs is a complicated process based on considerations of size, use, anticipated and current threats and impacts, and the socio-economic proﬁle and environmental characteristics of the region (Kelleher 1999). The design of MPAs is also complicated by the fact that there are a number of issues inherent in marine management not experienced in terrestrial management. These include the following: (i) having a high degree of interconnectedness of the marine environment; (ii) the three dimensional aspects of management; (iii) marine areas are not static over time; (iv) sampling marine systems is very diﬃcult; (v) there are many ownership issues in the marine environment; and overall (vi) a lack of knowledge about the marine system. Jones and Carpenter (2009) in a paper on the design of MPAs for the UK also highlight the importance of providing ecological linkages between MPAs as part of a coherent network of MPAs overall. A MPA that is designed to be ecologically coherent is one that: (i) interacts and supports the wider environment; (ii) maintains the processes, functions and structures of their intended protected features across their natural range, (iii) functions synergistically as a whole, within which the individual protected sites beneﬁt from each other to achieve the two objectives above and (iv) may additionally be designed to be resilient for changing conditions (Ardron et al. 2008). Part of developing such a network is also determining what the ‘gaps’ are between MPAs. The focus here is on the parameters such as habitat representativity and maximum distance between MPAs (Jones and Carpenter 2009, Gaines et al. 2010). Known also as the ‘rules of thumb’ for MPA design principles, these principles include (McLeod et al. 2009, 362-370): 1. Bigger is better and protected areas should be at least 10-20km in diameter 2. Simple shapes (squares, rectangles) to minimize ‘edge’ eﬀects 3. Units no more than 15-20 km apart 4. Protect at least 3 examples of each habitat (representation, replication, spread, catastrophe minimisation) – best practice 5. Select variety of temperature regimes to minimise future climate warming impacts 6. Protect nursery areas, spawning aggregations, areas of high uniqueness & diversity 7. Maintain functional groups (predators, herbivores, detrivores) As Jones and Carpenter (2009, 743) note, “this approach to network design is legally and politically more defensible as it is scientiﬁcally more realistic.” MPAs are usually designed according to two basic frameworks. Firstly, a multiple-use marine park is one that within its boundaries includes a suite of zones, each oﬀering varying degrees of protection. Higher order levels of protection are usually zones which prohibit various activities that would be perceived as destructive to the special values of that area. These zones are normally known as either “sanctuary zones” or “no-take reserves” as the aim is to prevent ﬁshing activity. Lower order levels of protection would normally allow a range of activities within its region, including ﬁshing, tourist activity and other uses. 5 Secondly, a no-take MPA system can either be a single area or a suite/network of areas that are only no-take and are declared speciﬁcally to create high level environmental protection for that region. For example, the state of Victoria, Australia, has established a system of no-take MPAs, whereas in South Australia, there is a series of multiple-use MPAs. Importantly, in order to determine what level of protection will be declared, whether within a strictly no take or a multiple-use model, the IUCN Criteria for protection are used as a guide to delineating protection regimes. Table 2 below reproduces the deﬁnitions for the diﬀerent IUCN Criteria. Category Category I Description Protected area managed mainly for science or wilderness protection (Strict Nature Reserve/Wilderness Area) Protected area managed mainly for ecosystem protection and recreation (National Park) Protected area managed mainly for conservation of speciﬁc natural features (Natural Monument) Protected area managed mainly for conservation through management intervention (Habitat/Species Management Area) Protected area managed mainly for landscape/seascape conservation and recreation (Protected Landscape/ Seascape) Protected area managed mainly for the sustainable use of natural ecosystems (Managed Resource Protected Area). (IUCN, 1994) Table 1: IUCN levels of protection Category II Category III Category IV Category V Category VI When designating the type of criteria and zone matrix for the MPA in question, there will be two issues to consider: the legal status of the MPA, and the approach. In Australia, ecosystem-based management is another framework, which is being used to manage ﬁsheries, but is also implemented in principle for MPAs. In this context, resolving what the key boundaries will be is crucial. Establishing the baseline conditions of the areas chosen for protection is another factor. Foley et al. (2010, 955) suggest that ecosystem-based marine spatial planning (MSP) is a process that “informs the spatial distribution of activities in the ocean so that existing and emerging uses can be maintained, use conﬂicts reduced and ecosystem health and services protected and sustained for future generations’” They argue the need to move away from MPA design that takes a sector by sector approach, to one such as marine spatial planning (MSP) that emphasises ecological, economic, governance and social dimensions, thus bringing planning together in an integrated way. The advantages of this model are that it balances the diversity of human activities with an ocean’s capacity to provide ecosystem services; it incorporates multiple dimensions in the planning and supports 6 management that is coordinated at ecosystem as well as political scales. The need to deal with context and uncertainty in MPA design is also an important theme in the literature. Contextual factors include geomorphology and biogeography, as well as type, distribution, frequency and intensity of existing and anticipated ocean uses. Similarly all ecosystems face uncertainty as part of the complex interactions between systems. While the nature of uncertainty means the implications of ecosystem change is not fully understood, the nature of human-resource interactions and the additional overlay of uncertainty created by climate change, means that MPA managers need to ﬁnd ways of incorporating the uncertainty principle into their designs. This may mean the declaration of larger areas, or a more diﬀuse and adaptable set of management measures. 4. Integrating knowledge systems It is important to incorporate diﬀerent knowledge systems when planning, designing and implementing MPAs. For example, Scholz et al. (2004) used participatory socio-economic analysis to draw on and include ﬁshermen’s knowledge in the marine protected area planning in California. The advantage of local ecological knowledge – or if dealing with Indigenous groups, traditional ecological knowledge - is that it is site speciﬁc, and can inform processes at a local scale (Nursey-Bray 2009, Nursey-Bray and Rist 2009). Such knowledge will often be a mixture of local, experiential and scientiﬁc knowledge, so brings dimensions to the management arrangements that otherwise would not be there. Olsson and Folke (2001) highlight the beneﬁts of local ecological knowledge in a case study of Lake Racken. Key to ensuring eﬀective incorporation of diﬀerent knowledge systems is how institutions behave and operate. As Jentoft (2004) argues, ‘institution’ is a concept with many deﬁnitions, yet it is through institutions that management operates. The idea of how institutions operate is a central theme in the literature partly because the development of governance arrangements such as co-management has occurred worldwide in an eﬀort to bring interests such as ﬁshing on board, or as Noble (2000, 69-70) notes: “Co-management systems consider institutional arrangements in ﬁsheries management as a way of decentralising resource management decisions and improving participatory democracy and compliance”. 5. Socio-economic conditions A key lesson from implementing MPAs is that while they provide biological beneﬁts, the development and their ongoing operation are contingent on the socio-economic situation of the stakeholders within the region. The socio-economic and cultural context within which an MPA will be implemented is an important determining factor in its viability. As Banks and Skilleter (2010) note, the success of MPAs is contingent on political commitment and agency leadership, as well as greater stakeholder involvement. Much is written about this, often focussing on the extent to which the public may be disenfranchised by the implementation of a protected area. Key themes include the issue of compensation, how to negotiate and resolve stakeholder conﬂict and how to build or forge socio-economic beneﬁt from the declaration of an MPA. As Cinner et al. (2010) note, in using Kenya as a case study example, in a world facing increasing food insecurity, there is a clear imperative on managers to address socio-economic issue in their policies. Economic viability and livelihoods are key themes within this debate (Grafton and Kompas 2005). Working out how to resolve conﬂict is another key issue. For example there are often conﬂicts between ﬁsheries and endangered species conservation interests. There are many examples of this, such as that 7 presented by Rauschayer, Wittmer and Berghofer (2008) of conﬂict in the Czech republic, Italy, Portugal, Germany and France between proponents of aquaculture and those campaigning for otter preservation in marine , estuarine and coastal protected areas. 6. Evaluation, monitoring and adaptation In order to ascertain whether MPAs are working, and how successful they are in achieving their objectives, the implementation of monitoring, evaluation and adaptation frameworks is essential. Evaluations need to demonstrate ‘results’. Increasingly, evaluations of MPAs have been based on an outcomes rather than activity based approach. While the need for evaluation is indubitable, given the wide variety of MPAS, which vary in size, management and zones across the world, it is important to recognise that no one size ﬁts all (Day 2008). There are many other challenges. For example, where evaluations have been done, they have tended to focus on the bio-physical conditions in speciﬁc areas, rather than undertaking a holistic and inter-disciplinary investigation. Many evaluations rely on academics or research institutions and very few by management staﬀ who have in fact been actively involved in the processes over time. Adaptive management is another area which managers within MPAs are trialling, especially in light of the uncertainty and ﬂuidity surrounding climate change projections; the need for management in turn to be adaptable is becoming an important part of the discourse about marine management. Adaptive management can be deﬁned as “ managing according to a plan by which decisions are made and modiﬁed as a function of what is known and learned about the system, including information about the eﬀect of previous management actions” (Parma et al. 1998). Evaluations are important as they enhance the capacity for adaptive management, improve planning, promote accountability and encourage appropriate resource allocation. Jones (2000) outlines seven steps for evaluating eﬀectiveness. These are presented in Table 2 below: Table 2: Evaluating Eﬀectiveness Step 1: Identify management objectives Step 2: Deﬁne key desired outcomes Step 3: Identify performance indicators Step 4: Undertake monitoring Step 5: Periodically assess results Step 6: Report ﬁndings and recommendations Step 7: Adjust management as necessary Day (2008) in a case study of the lessons learned from the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park region notes there are a number of lessons to be learnt from monitoring MPAs. Starting small is one of them and ensuring that a wide range of methods are considered, then applied appropriate to the situation, is crucial. Ensuring there are opportunities for participatory or community monitoring will enhance the legitimacy of the program. Adopting a precautionary approach is useful. In other words don’t wait for the ’perfect’ science before taking management action. Monitor management as well as the MPA itself. 7. Community based management and MPAs. One of the key themes in MPAs is the extent to which they can provide the basis for community-based management of marine resources. Research focuses on what are the successful examples of community driven and managed MPAs. Most of the literature in this area derives from work on co-management or Commons Theory. Speciﬁcally, the key features of a successful and enduring community management program feature the following design principles (from Ostrom 1990): 8 1. Clearly designed geographic boundaries. 2. The development and enforcement of rules that limit resource use. 3. Congruence between rules and local conditions (i.e. scale and appropriateness). 4. Resource users have rights to make, enforce and change the rules. 5. Individuals aﬀected by the rules can participate in changing the rules. 6. Monitoring of the resources. 7. The presence of accountability mechanisms for those monitoring the rules. 8. Sanctions that increase with repeat oﬀences or severity of oﬀences. 9. The presence of conﬂict resolution mechanisms. 10. The degree to which they are nested within other institutions. 8. MPAs and Fisheries Existing experience suggests that more work needs to be done to explore how ﬁshers, tour operators and other aﬀected parties can be part of the MPA process as early as possible so they may all better understand and access the beneﬁts of an MPA. Studies have also shown that overall, uncertainty about the ecological values of an MPA need not be a reason not to proceed – experience shows that an imperfect MPA has more beneﬁt than none at all. This review also found that MPAs should be managed from both bottom-up and top-down approaches with a clearly articulated set of objectives and associated regulatory and monitoring programs so as to assess management eﬀectiveness. Moreover, management needs to consider adaptive management so it retains ﬂexibility and the ability to amend/change over time, and as new and other management challenges arise (Parks 8 (2) 1998). 8.1. Extraction and Conservation Perhaps the most dominant theme in the literature is the discussion around the tension between the need for extraction and conservation in MPAs. Biodiversity and conservation goals are the initial drivers for creating MPAs. However, these areas are also (unsurprisingly) areas of the highest resource extraction. Extractive industries include gas and oil exploration and drilling, diving, recreational ﬁshing, commercial ﬁshing and various forms of tourism. In particular the main conﬂict over MPAs is located between advocates of MPAs and commercial ﬁshers (Kittinger et al. 2010). A fear that equity, rights, and livelihoods will be compromised underpin core arguments by ﬁshers that oppose the declaration of MPAs. 8.2. Beneﬁts to ﬁsheries A number of beneﬁts accrue to ﬁsheries from the establishment of MPAs. MPAs contribute to the maintenance and restoration of biological diversity and abundance of species, including ﬁsheries. Table 3 is a summary of some of the research into the utility of MPAs, and overall these studies highlight that while beneﬁts are not always evenly distributed across all MPAs, evidence is clearly showing that abundance, biomass, economic value, habitat and migration routes are all enhanced by the declaration of MPAs. This review also shows that time is an important determinant in MPA success, with at least 35 years duration needed before clear beneﬁts are accrued. Studies also show that networks of MPAs, and MPAs that are larger and closer to each other, will yield higher economic, ﬁsheries and biodiversity outputs overall. 9 Table 3: Examples of eﬀectiveness of MPAs for ﬁsheries Initiative Nabq Managed Reserve Protected Area, Gulf of Aqaba Network of no-take zones (NTZ), established 1995 to promote the sustainable management of ﬁn ﬁsh stocks Surveys undertaken of molluscs and echinoderms across NTZ and adjacent ﬁshing zones (2000 – 2002). Outcomes Pooled data from 3 years showed signiﬁcantly higher abundances of Tridanca and tectus dentatus in NTZ with a greater abundance in reef edge zone also showed greater frequency relating to size range and frequency. Citation Ashworth et. al. (2004) Spiny Lobster – Janus edwardsii – Increased abundance and greater biomass in reserves in New Zealand and Tasmania. Abalone, scallops and clams. Showed increase in abundance in areas closed to ﬁshing. Edgar and Barrett (1999), Kelly et. al. (2000) Rice et. al. (1989), Edgar and Barrett (1999), Wallace (1999), Murawski et. al. (2000), RogersBennett and Pearse (2001) Castilla and Fernandez et. al. (1998) Small scale annual closure of gastropod mollusc ﬁshing in Chile. Increased CPUE when ﬁshing reopened, and mean size and CPUE of three exploited invertebrates was higher in a managed area than outside. Eﬀects of NTZ changed with water depth as most ﬁshing occurred in shallow water. Reef ﬁsh – 7 of the 8 species increased in abundance in NTZ. Evidence of spill-over found and in 6/8 species signiﬁcant drop in abundance was found as moved away from centre of NTZ. “spill-over may occur to an extent and in a direction depending on the trophic group and ﬁshing intensity”. Of these only 0.08 are no-take. Factors aﬀected were mean size, abundance of rock lobster, and abundance of prey such as urchins and abalone “Our results reﬂect the importance of long-term monitoring and the value of MPAs when suﬃciently large as reference areas for determining and understanding ecosystem eﬀects of ﬁshing in the absence of historical baseline data”. Apart from small ﬁsh individuals, inside/outside diﬀerences in species abundance were signiﬁcantly aﬀected by MPA estates; abundance increased on average in the reserve. Results were more signiﬁcant for large to medium sized ﬁsh. Beneﬁts of MPAs to ﬁshed species do accrue but do not apply to all species at all times and are highly variable amongst taxa. Beneﬁts are clear, though, after 6 years of MPA establishment. Nabq Managed Reserve Protected Area case study of 8 families of reef ﬁsh, at 3 m depth across NTZ, and for a limited direction in adjacent ﬁsh zones. There are 4600 MPAs with some level of protection. Densities of macrobenthic invertebrates and macroalga in 4 Tasmania NTZ MPAs were monitored over 10 years, after MPA establishment. Ashworth and Ormond (2005) Banks and Skilletter (2009) Shears et. al. (2006) Assessed eﬀect of NTZ on reef ﬁsh assemblages in the north West Mediterranean – it is a 3 year survey, that modelled diversity and abundance within the assemblage. Claudet, et. al. (2006) 10 Measured reef ﬁsh spill-over from NTZ in Itacolomi Reef, eastern Brazil, estimating biomass and body size by the reserve boundary before 2001 and after 2002 – 2005 protection. Replication with some unprotected sites, and according to 3 distance categories – 0 – 400, 400 – 800 and 800 – 1200 m. Habitat measures taken. Biomass of major ﬁsh resources low at ﬁrst but increased by 2003. Results oﬀset by illegal poaching so suggest MPAs also need ongoing monitoring and incorporation of socio-economic aspects to be fully eﬀective. Francini-Filho, and Moura (2008) Review of MPAs which also reported on project that trialled BACIP analysis (Before – After – Control – Impact) on 3 marine reserves. * Tsitsikamma National Park, South Africa MPA established 1964, densities of commercially important ﬁsh (sparid) was 42 times higher than in nearby ﬁshing grounds * Scandoli Nature Reserve in Corsica – densities of 11 ﬁsh species were 5 times higher than ﬁshing site after 13 years protection. * Columbretes Island Marine Reserve Spain; experimental CPUE found stocks were 6 – 58 times greater than unﬁshed sites including the Pen Shell being 12 times greater in abundance than in 100 ha of no-take. Other examples cited in article * 7 fold increase in larger predatory ﬁsh after protection for 1 year in the Apo Island Philippines. * New Zealand’s temperate rocky reef reserves protected for 5 – 20 years found snapper were greater than the minimum legal size and are 14 times more abundant than in ﬁshing areas. * After 5 years, 35% of blue cod on Long Island Kakomuhua Reserve were 33 cm vs. less than 1% in the nearby area. * Maria Island Reserve, Tasmania, lung ﬁsh were more than 3 times more common after 6 years protection. * Everglades, Florida, modal size of grey snapper was 25 – 35 cm larger than in exploited areas. * Edmunds Underwater Park USA, after more than 20 years protection, cod produced 20 times more eggs than in adjacent ﬁshing area. * Copper rock ﬁsh are 100 times more abundant and 70% of biomass of ﬁsh in Kenya’s Mombasa Marine National Park are reproductively active compared with 20% in nearby ﬁshing areas * Fiji clam closures resulted in a dramatic increase in the number and size of clams were 13 times more abundance in just 3 years. After 5 years, 19 times abundant. Other possible eﬀects- being able to continue traditional practice. * St Lucia stocks of 5 families of exploited reef ﬁsh tripled in biomass in reserves within 5 years of protection. * De Hoop Marine Reserve South Africa, experimental ﬁshing – CPUE, order of magnitude shows that sites are aﬀected after 7 years. * Florida Keys: densities of yellowbill snapper increased by 15 times in sanctuaries areas after 4 years. * Cape Canaveral, Florida, 40 Km square was closed in 1962 due to the Kennedy Space centre: Eﬀects on recreational ﬁshing within 20 km of stretch of coast around the reserve, 62% of recorded breaking black drum, 54% of record breaking red rum and 50% of spotted sea trout found. * MPAs can protect migration routes – Blue Crab in Chesapeake Bay, USA, only spawning areas protected within reserves, and its deep water spawning migration route, for females could help survive/ enhance sustainability of ﬁshing; the spill-over eﬀects of juvenile/adults, export of egg/larvae, and migration routes Gell and Roberts (2003) (good review of many MPAs) 11 Chile - 3 year closure for squat lobster. Study to quantify the number and biomass of individuals annually spilling over from an MPA and their contribution to the local ﬁshery catches. Decade of tag recapture (1997 – 2007) for the lobster on Colombretes Islands Marine reserve. Six Mediterranean MPAs reviewed. Economic assessment of beneﬁts of networks of marine conservation zones in UK oﬀshore waters, used to help process inform the UK Marine Coastal Access Bill. Survey of ﬁsher views about MPAs in UK. Increased biomass, re-expansion of species into area 50 km into areas previously depleted largely due to larval dispersion from MPAs – conclusion here is that MPAs should be relatively close or connected. Showed that during 8 - 17 years protection, harvested spillover oﬀset the loss of yield resulting from reduction of ﬁshing grounds, producing mean annual net beneﬁt of 20% of species: what they did not make up for in numbers they did in weight as individuals were much larger. Eﬀect of reserve: evidence a higher value of ﬁsh species richness, abundance and biomass compared with inside to outside. Estimate beneﬁts range from designations of between 10.2 billion pounds and 23.5 billion pounds in present values and applying a 3.5% discount rate. Found ﬁshers held a diversity of views around and that it would be worth talking to ﬁshers and working with them in development of MPAs. Found that minimal fraction of habitats needed to be oﬀ-limits to ﬁshing, and it depends on the birth and death rate in habitats and ﬁsheries. Suggested that MPAs are appropriate for mobile species that have (i) small movement rates, (ii) high birth rates to ﬁshing rates (iii) large habitat sizes. Meta analysis of ratio of ﬁsh abundances inside versus outside MPAs show initially not much diﬀerence. However reserves, over more than 10 years, show that female ﬁrst sex changers considerably beneﬁt from MPAs. For it to be win-win, MPA must be based on long-term goal based on thorough evaluation of the environmental, social and economic values for marine biodiversity. Eﬀects of trends reﬂecting habitat heterogeneity, spatial restructuring of data on spatial predictions of ﬁsh catch per unit eﬀort. CPUE of total ﬁsh, and length increased closer to the reserve, especially the common pandora and the striped red mullet. High non-consumptive beneﬁts also accrue and due to divers coming to watch groper signiﬁcant economic beneﬁts have accrued in the local community. Adaptive management schemes could well provide a way to incorporate recurring information and shifting baselines. Roa, R & Bahamonde (1993) Goni et. al. (2010), Goni et. al. (2001, 2001a, 2006) HarmelinVivien et. al. (2008) Hussain et. al. (2010), Sanchirico et. al. (2002) Jones (2007) Looked at persistence and growth rate for small populations to determine conditions that will yield greater growth rate. Malvadkar and Hastings (2008) Looking at whether species that change sex are beneﬁted by MPAs. Molloy, et. al. (2008) Lyme Bay, UK July 2008, 206km square declared. Rees et. al. (2001) Spatial analysis of the beneﬁts of Medes Island Marine Reserve. Stelzenmuller, et. al. (2007) Suggest ﬁshing should be closed in all spawning areas and at least 50% of adjacent areas:case study of Leopard Groper. Surveys of 10 sites inside and outside of Bahaman marine reserve over 2.5 years. Investigating whether reductions in macroalga cover associated with recovery of herbivorous parrot ﬁsh within reserve can help recovery. Wielgus et. al. (2008) Increases in coral cover; and macro algal cover negatively correlated with change in total coral over time. Mumby and Harborne (2010) 12 Project to count shark populations in no go zones in GBR. Densities of white tip sharks twice as high in sancturay zoned reefs as on general use zoned reefs; twice as high on sink reefs and grey reef sharks four times more abundant on sanctuary zoned reefs as on general managed use zoned reefs. 1.5 times more common coral trout on sanctuary zoned reefs. Diﬀerences reﬂect real diﬀerence in ﬁshing eﬀort across zones. Ayling and Choat (2008) Inﬂuence of zoning on ﬁsh communities of deep reef bases of southern GBRMPA. 2009 survey of 16 pairs of large discrete deep water reef bases in southern GBRMPA. Zoning had a signiﬁcant eﬀect on the observed MaxN, but this was detectable mainly in habitats dominated by corals. In this habitat type, ‘target’ species were about 1.5 times, and unﬁshed species about 1.9 times, as abundant in the sanctuary zones as the same groups in the genral managed use zones. Individual species showed distinct responses, with grey reef sharks (taken as by-catch) having higher MaxN in a range of habitat types on sanctuary zoned reefs, and the Venus tusk ﬁsh having lower MaxN on sanctuary zoned. The prized deepwater coral trout, red emperor and red-throat emperor had higher MaxN values around the sanctuary zoned reef in coral dominated habitats, but not by large margins. For every ten BRUVS sets, there were about eleven coral trout, six red emperor and ﬁve grey reef sharks more in sanctuary zones than in similar coral dominated habitats of general managed use zones. Robust reserve eﬀects were limited to Montastraea reefs. The reserve supported an average of ≈ 15% more ﬁsh species per site compared to outside the reserve. This pattern was particularly driven by more large-bodied grouper, damselﬁsh, and butterﬂy ﬁsh species inside the reserve. Increases in ﬁsh biomass and diﬀerences in community structure inside the reserve were limited to large-bodied groupers. Analyses showed that there was a clear eﬀect of zoning, where the mean abundance index of species primarily targeted by ﬁshing in the blue zone were half those of the same species in green zones that were closed to ﬁshing in 2004. Abundance ratios of these species in green and blue zones varied from 1.1 to 11.9 (geometric mean = 2.8) and ratios of 5 of the most targeted species were signiﬁcantly greater in green than blue zones including red emperor (Lutjanus sebae), red throat emperor (Lethrinus miniatus), venus tuskﬁsh (Choerodon venustus), spangled emperor (Lethrinus nebulosus) and golden spot hogﬁsh (Bodianus perditio). Cappo et. al. (2008) Benthic (video quadrats) and associated ﬁsh communities (underwater visual censuses) in a well-enforced reserve in the Bahamas. Harborne et. al. (2008) Seasonal surveys (Autumn/Spring 2007) on two pairs of discrete deepwater shoals in the southern Great Barrier Reef. Within each pair, one shoal was re-zoned ‘Green’ (closed to all ﬁshing) in 2004 while the other ‘Blue’ (open to ﬁshing) remained open to ﬁshing. Stowar M, et. al.. (2008) Impact of MPAs on Crown of Thorns Starﬁsh predation. Relative frequency of outbreaks on reefs that were open to ﬁshing was 3.75 times more than that on no-take reefs in the mid-shelf region of the GBR, where most outbreaks occur. Sweatman H (2008) 13 Rottnest Island, Western Australia. Surveys of spiny lobster (Panulirus cygnus) populations in shallow waters surrounding Rottnest Island in Western Australia revealed much higher levels of density, biomass and egg production in no-take than in ﬁshed areas. Density of lobsters was ~34 times higher in the sanctuary, and density of lobsters above minimum legal size around 50 times higher than in other areas around the island where recreational ﬁshing is allowed. Mean carapace length (CL), total biomass and egg production of lobsters in the sanctuary zone were signiﬁcantly higher than in adjacent ﬁshed areas. Large individuals (≥100 mm CL), especially large males, were found almost exclusively within the sanctuary. No statistical signiﬁcant diﬀerence was detected in species richness between the areas however species evenness was signiﬁcantly lower in the only non-reserve site impacted by commercial net ﬁshing. Mean size of nekton was found to be signiﬁcantly greater in the marine reserves compared to nonreserves but no statistical signiﬁcant diﬀerence was found in the density of nekton between the study sites. Babcock, et. al. (2007) Nekton diversity and community composition in subtropical eastern Australia. Pillans et. al. (2007) Philippines - examined spatial patterns of abundance of ﬁsh across two 900 m long sections of coral reef slope at each of two small Philippine islands (Apo and Balicasag). One section sampled the entire length of a no-take reserve and extended 200-400 m outside the two lateral reserve boundaries. The other section, without a reserve, was a control. The reserves had had 20 (Apo) and 15 (Balicasag) years of protection when sampled in 2002. Abundance of target ﬁsh declined sharply 50 m outside the ARNB Density of sedentary target ﬁsh declined 2-6 times faster than density of highly mobile and mobile target ﬁsh across the ARNB. Abesamis et. al. (2006) Study designed to examine potential of no take reserves to re-establish predatory interactions and rocky reef interactions, Mediterranean. Protected locations supported higher density and size of the most eﬀective ﬁsh preying on sea urchins (the sea breams Diplodus sargus and D. vulgaris) than unprotected locations. Density of sea urchins (Paracentrotus lividus and Arbacia lixula) was lower at protected than at unprotected locations. These results suggest that (1) depletion and size reduction of predatory ﬁsh caused by ﬁshing alter patterns of predation on sea urchins, and that (2) ﬁshing bans (e.g., within no-take marine reserves) may re-establish lost interactions among strongly interactive species in temperate rocky reefs with potential community-wide eﬀects. Lobster densities were comparable between both marine parks prior to park establishment, but the response of lobster populations diﬀered markedly following protection. On average, legal-sized lobster were eleven times more abundant and biomass 25 times higher in the no-take marine park following its establishment, while in the partially protected marine park there has been no signiﬁcant change in lobster numbers. Guidetti (2006) No-take versus partial protection: long-term data (1977–2005) from before and after park establishment, on the abundance of spiny lobster Jasus edwardsii from ﬁxed sites in a no-take marine park and a recreationally ﬁshed marine park. Shears et. al. (2006) 14 Apo Island, Philippines: densitydependent export of a planktivorous reef ﬁsh, Naso vlamingii. Mean density of N. vlamingii increased threefold inside the reserve between 1983 and 2003. Modal size in the reserve increased from 35 to 45 cm total length over 20 years of protection. In addition, both density and modal size increased outside the reserve close to (200–300 m), but not farther from (300–500 m), the reserve boundary over the 20 years of reserve protection. Abesamis and Russ (2005) Manipulations of reserve status, and yield estimates, were made at two Philippine islands over two decades. Twenty-ﬁve percent and ten percent, respectively, of the coral reefs at Sumilon and Apo islands were made no-take reserves in 1974 and 1982. Biomass of target ﬁsh increased inside the no-take reserves 3- to 4.5 fold over 9–18 years. Biomass did not increase outside each reserve. Protection of the Sumilon reserve ceased in 1984. Biomass of targeted ﬁsh in the reserve and trap and gillnet catches of these ﬁsh declined by 42.7% and 40%, respectively, by 1985. The reserve was re-protected from 1987 to 1991 and from 1995 to 2001. Fish biomass increased in the reserve by 27.2%. Snapper showed signiﬁcant increases in abundance and biomass relative to ﬁshed control locations. This was particularly apparent for large snapper (>270 mm), whose numbers increased rapidly to levels 7.4 times higher in the ﬁnal survey compared to the initial pre-reserve survey, and total snapper biomass increased by 818%. There was no signiﬁcant increase in the abundance, biomass or size of snapper at the reference locations over this time. Densities of Plectropomus spp. and Lutjanus carponotatus, both targeted by ﬁsheries, were much higher in protected zones than ﬁshed zones in two of the three island groups. Plectropomus spp. were 3.6 and 2.3 times more abundant in protected than ﬁshed zones of the Palm and Whitsunday island groups. L. carponotatus were 2.3 and 2.2 times more abundant in protected zones than ﬁshed zones of the Whitsunday and Keppel island groups. The biomass of large predatory ﬁsh was still increasing exponentially after 9 and 18 years of protection at Sumilon and Apo reserves, respectively. Underwater visual census done re biomass of Acanthuridae (surgeonﬁsh) and Carangidae (jacks). Showed that two families of reef ﬁsh that account for 40–75% of the ﬁshery yield from Apo Island, Philippines, tripled in a well-protected no-take reserve over 18 years (1983–2001). Biomass of these families did not change signiﬁcantly over the same period at a site open to ﬁshing. Alcala et. al. (2005) Response of snapper Pagrus auratus to the establishment of no-take status in a marine reserve around the Poor Knights Islands in north eastern New Zealand. Denny et. al. (2004) Larger biomass of targeted reef ﬁsh in no-take marine reserves on the Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Evans and Russ (2004) Sumilon and Apo Islands, Philippines, 1983 - 2000. Russ and Alcala (2004) Sumilon and Apo Islands. Russ et. al. (2004) 15 Quantitative estimates of density and biomass of coral trout, Plectropomus spp., the major target of the hook and line ﬁsheries on the Great Barrier Reef (GBR), Australia, on inshore fringing reefs of the Palm and Whitsunday Island groups, central GBR, are provided for 34 years before (1983-1984), and 12-13 years after (1999-2000) the establishment of no-take reserves in 1987. Density and biomass of coral trout increased signiﬁcantly (by factors of 5.9 and 6.3 in the Palm Islands, and 4.0 and 6.2 in the Whitsunday Islands) in the reserve sites, but not the ﬁshed sites, between 1983-1984 and 1999-2000. In 1999-2000, density and biomass of coral trout and a secondary target of the ﬁsheries, Lutjanus carponotatus, were signiﬁcantly higher in the protected zones than in the ﬁshed zones at both island groups. Williamson et. al. (2004) Do marine reserves work? The results of 89 separate studies show that, on average, with the exception of invertebrate biomass and size, values for all four biological measures are signiﬁcantly higher inside reserves compared to outside (or after reserve establishment vs. before) when evaluated for both the overall communities and by each functional group within these communities (carnivorous ﬁshes, herbivorous ﬁshes, planktivorous ﬁshes/invertebrate eaters, and invertebrates). Results also show that the relative impacts of reserves, such as the proportional diﬀerences in density or biomass, are independent of reserve size, suggesting that the eﬀects of marine reserves increase directly rather than proportionally with the size of a reserve. Found signiﬁcantly greater biomass, size, and abundance of legal-sized lethrinids (the most targeted family in the region) in sanctuary zones, but no diﬀerences in other families/genera. Cover of Acropora coral and hard substrate diﬀered between zones at some regions but diﬀerences were inconsistent. There were no signiﬁcant diﬀerences in algal cover between zones. Possible that recreational ﬁshing pressure may have capacity to deplete ﬁsh populations below that of adjacent protected areas. The eﬀect of recreational ﬁshing in coral reef habitats may be greater than previously thought. A marine reserve could be highly beneﬁcial for this species. Study shows beneﬁts from reserves not just for overexploited stocks of low-mobility species, but also (to a lesser extent) for underexploited stocks and high-mobility species. Greatly increased resilience to overﬁshing is also found in the majority of cases. Within 5 years of creation, a network of small reserves in St. Lucia increased adjacent catches of artisanal ﬁshers by between 46 % and 90%, depending on the type of gear the ﬁshers used. In Florida, reserve zones in the Merritt Island National Wildlife Refuge have supplied increasing numbers of world record sized ﬁsh to adjacent recreational ﬁsheries since the 1970s. Report that sums up results of empirical studies of marine reserves to assess the potential beneﬁts of protection for ﬁsh populations. Demonstrate that the overall abundance of ﬁshes inside reserves is, on average, 3.7 times higher than outside reserve boundaries. Found signiﬁcant increases in the species richness, density and biomass of the major exploited ﬁsh families (Serranidae, Lutjanidae, Lethrinidae, Mullidae, Labridae, Scaridae, Siganidae and Acanthuridae) and also of the Chaetodontidae. Halpern (2003) Compared assemblages of targeted ﬁsh from coral reef habitats in sanctuary (no-ﬁshing) and recreationally ﬁshed zones of a marine protected area (MPA). Westera et. al. (2003) Mediterranean hake (Merluccius merluccius). Apostolaki et. al. (2002) Marine reserves in Florida (United States) and St. Lucia. Roberts et. al. (2001) MPAs and beneﬁts to ﬁsheries. Mosquera et. al. (2000) New Caledonia: commercial ﬁsh communities and Chaetodontidae, sampled before ﬁshing prohibition and after ﬁve years of protection, were compared. Wantiez et. al. (1997) 16 Estimated the abundance and size of ﬁshes by trapping and visual census on fringing reefs in Barbados: 5 reefs within the 2.2 km of the Barbados Marine Reserve (BMR) and 8 reefs in the non-reserve (NR) area within 4 km of the reserve boundaries. Caribbean marine reserves -coralreef ﬁsh communities of Saba Manne Park (Netherlands Antilles) and Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Ambergns Caye, Belize) in the Caribbean to assess diﬀerences between them and adjacent ecologically similar sites after 4 years of protection from ﬁshing. The abundance of large, trappable size ﬁsh of all species combined was higher in the BMR than in the NR, but abundance of small, non trappable ﬁsh did not diﬀer between BMR and NR. BMR does protect the ﬁsh community from ﬁshing mortality and that emigration rates are generally low. 45% of target species commonly recorded in visual censuses in Belize (23 % of all recorded target species), and 59% at Saba (22 %) showed greater abundance size or biomass in shallow protected sites. These diﬀerences are considered primarily to reﬂect increased survivorship with the cessation of ﬁshing mortality. The greatest estimated biomasses were observed in locally protected snapper (Lutlanidae) in Belize and Saba and grunt (Haemuhdae) at Saba. In both protected areas the local stock of visible demersal target ﬁshes 19 to 20 times greater in biomass and 22 to 35 times greater in commercial value than in ﬁshed sites. Rakitin and Kramer (1996) Polunin and Roberts (1993) Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Before and after study shows that while there is variation between regions and cross shef locations due to diﬀerences in ecology and intensity of exploitation, that (i) no take zones in the GBR beneﬁt ﬁsh stocks with up to 2 fold increases in numbers and size of ﬁsh on many no take reefs, (ii) that no take reefs generally have larger/older ﬁsh for the target species and that (iii) ecosystem eﬀects occur where no take zones are beneﬁting overall ﬁsh populations, not just those individual ﬁsh populations in no take areas. McCook et al (2010) Tasmania Densities of macrobenthic invertebrates and macro-algae in four Tasmanian ‘no-take’ marine protected areas (MPAs) were monitored annually for 10 years following MPA establishment, with changes compared to those at external (ﬁshed) reference locations. Fishing substantially inﬂuenced the population characteristics of many species, including altering the mean size and abundance of rock lobsters and the abundance of prey species such as urchins and abalone. Strong declines in abundances of purple urchins and abalone within the largest MPA at Maria Island indicate likely indirect eﬀects related to protection of predators from ﬁshing. The two smallest MPAs (ca. 1 km coastal span) generated few detectable changes. Our results aﬃrm the importance of longterm monitoring and the value of MPAs, when suﬃciently large, as reference areas for determining and understanding ecosystem eﬀects of ﬁshing in the absence of historical baseline. Barrett, N., Buxton, C., Edgar, G (2009) 9. Conclusion Marine protected areas are proven to conserve marine life whilst providing a major boost to ﬁsheries and other industries such as marine tourism. This review has highlighted that if MPAs are designed well, and implemented in accordance with international standards they reap multiple environmental and socio-economic beneﬁts. Experience also shows that successful implementation of MPAs and their ongoing maintenance will only occur with the full participation of the aﬀected community. This review shows that across the world MPAs have in fact acted as eﬀective ﬁsheries management tools in temperate and tropical regions. The establishment of MPAS is indeed ‘much more than ﬁshy business’, and provides real social and economic beneﬁts that go beyond biodiversity outcomes. 17 Appendix 1: Other useful references Abesamis RA, Russ G (2005) Density dependant spillover from a marine reserve: long term evidence. Ecological Applications, 15(5), 2005, pp. 1798–1812. Abesamis RA, Russ GR, Alcala AC (2006) Gradients of abundance of ﬁsh across no-take marine reserve, Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, Volume 16, Issue 4, pages 349–371, June 2006. Abesamis, R.A., Russ, G.R., Alcala, A.C.,(2006). Gradients of abundance of ﬁsh across no-take marine reserve boundaries: evidence from Philippine coral reefs. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 16, 349–371. Agardy T, Bridgewater P, Crosby MP, Day J, Dayton PK, Kenchington R, et al. (2009) Dangerous targets? Unresolved issues and ideological clashes around marine protected areas. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 2009;13:353–67. Agardy, T. (1994). Advances in marine conservation: the role of marine protected areas. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 9:267-270. Airame S, Dugan J, Laﬀerty KD, Leslie H, McArdle DA, Warner RR (2003) Applying ecological criteria to Marine Reserve design: A case study from the California Channel Islands. Ecological Applications 13:170184. Alcala, A. C. (1998) Community-based coastal resource management in the Philippines: a case study. Ocean and Coastal Management 38:179–186. Alcala AC, Russ G, Maypa AP, Calumpong HP (2005) A long term spatially replicated experiment test of the eﬀect of marine reserves on local ﬁsh yields. Canadian Journal of Fish and Aquatic Sciences 62:98-108. Allens Consulting (2009) The economics of marine protected areas application of principles to Australia’s south west region. Allison GW, Gaines SD, Lubchenco J, Possingham HP (2003) Ensuring persistence of marine reserves: catastrophes require adopting an insurance factor. Ecological Applications 13:8-24. Allison, G. W., J. Lubchenco, and M. H. Carr. (1998). Marine reserves are necessary but not suﬃcient for marine conservation Ecological Applications 8:S79–S92. Ami D, Cartigny P, Rapaport A (2005) Can marine protected areas enhance both economic and biological situations? Comptes Rendus Biologies 328:357 - 366. Anon (2000) The Mediterranean: marine protected areas and the recovery of a large marine ecosystem. Environmental Conservation 27:95-97. ANZECC TFMPA (1998) Guidelines for Establishing the National Representative System of Marine Protected Areas. For Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council, Task Force on Marine Protected Areas. Environment Australia, Canberra. Apostolaki P, Milner-Gulland EJ, McAllister MK, Kirkwood GP (2002) Modelling the eﬀects of establishing a marine reserve for mobile ﬁsh species. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 59:405-415. Ardron, J.A., Possingham, H.P., and Klein, C.J. (eds) (2008). Marxan: Good Practices Handbook. External review version; 17 May, 2008. Paciﬁc Marine Analysis and Research Association, Vancouver, BC, Canada. 155 pages. www.pacmara.org. 18 Ashworth JS, Ormond RFG, Sturrock HT (2004) Eﬀects of reef-top gathering and ﬁshing on invertebrate abundance across take and no-take zones. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 303:221-242. Ashworth, J.S., Ormond, R.F.G., (2005). Eﬀects of ﬁshing pressure and trophic group on abundance and spillover across boundaries of a no-take zone. Biological Conservation 121, 333–344. Attwood CG, Bennett BA (1995) Modelling the eﬀect of marine reserves on the recreational shore-ﬁshery of the south-western Cape, South Africa. South African Journal of Marine Sciences, 16: 227–240. Attwood CG, Mann BQ, Beaumont, J, Harris JM (1997) Review of the state of marine protected areas in South Africa. South African Journal of Marine Sciences 18:341–367. Auster PJ, Joy K, Valentine PC (2001) Fish Species and Community Distributions as Proxies for Seaﬂoor Habitat Distributions: The Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary Example (Northwest Atlantic, Gulf Of Maine). Environmental Biology of Fishes 60:331-346. Ayling, A.M. and Choat, J.H. (2008) Abundance patterns of reef sharks and predatory ﬁshes on diﬀerently zoned reefs in the oﬀshore Townsville region: Final Report to the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. Research Publication No. 91. Babcock RC, Kelly S, Shears NT, Walker JW, Willis TJ (1999) Changes in community structure in temperate marine reserves. Marine Ecology Progress Series 189: 125-134. Babcock RC (2003) The New Zealand marine reserve experience: the science behind the politics. Pages 108119 in P. Hutchings and D. Lunney, editors. Conserving marine environments. Out of sight out of mind? Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales, Mossman, New South Wales. Babcock, R.C., J.C. Phillips, M. Lourey and G. Clapin (2007) Increased density, biomass and egg production in an unﬁshed population of Western Rock Lobster (Panulirus cygnus) at Rottnest Island, Western Australia. Marine and Freshwater Research. 58(3): 286-292. Baelde P (2005) Interactions between the implementation of marine protected areas and right-based ﬁsheries management in Australia. Fisheries Management and Ecology 12:9-18. Balmford A (1998) On hotspots and the use of indicators for reserve selection. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 13:409. Banks, SA, Skilleter, GA (2002) Mapping intertidal habitats and an evaluation of their conservation status in Queensland, Australia. Ocean & Coastal Management 45:485-509. Banks SA, Skilleter GA, Possingham HP (2005) Intertidal habitat conservation: identifying conservation targets in the absence of detailed biological information. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 15:271-288. Banks and Skilleter, G (2010) Implementing marine reserve networks: A comparison of approaches in New South Wales(Australia)and New Zealand Marine Policy 34 (2010) 197–207. Barrett, N., Buxton, C., Edgar, G (2009) Changes in invertebrate and macroalgal populations in Tasmanian marine reserves in the decade following protection, Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 370 (2009) 104-119. 19 Barrett NS, Edgar GJ, Buxton CD, Haddon M (2007) Changes in ﬁsh assemblages following 10 years of protection in Tasmanian marine protected areas. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 345:141-157. Bax, NJ, Williams A (2001) Seabed habitat on the south-eastern Australian continental shelf: context, vulnerability and monitoring. Marine and Freshwater Research 52, 491-512. Beger M, Jones GP, Munday PL (2003) Conservation of coral reef biodiversity: a comparison of reserve selection procedures for corals and ﬁshes. Biological conservation 111:53-62. Behrens MD, Laﬀerty KD (2004) Eﬀects of marine reserves and urchin disease on southern Californian rocky reef communities. Marine Ecology Progress Series 279: 129-139. Bell JD (1983) Eﬀects of depth and marine reserve ﬁshing restrictions on the structure of a rocky reef ﬁsh assemblage in the north-western Mediterranean Sea. Journal of Applied Ecology 20:357-369. Bellwood, D. R. (1988) Seasonal changes in the size and composition of the ﬁsh yield from reefs around Apo Island, central Philippines, with notes on methods of yield estimation. Journal of Fish Biology 32:881– 893. Bennett BA, Attwood CG (1991) Evidence for recovery of a surf-zone ﬁsh assemblage following the establishment of a marine reserve on the southern coast of South Africa. Marine Ecology Progress Series 75:173-181. Blanchard F, LeLoc’h F, Hily C, Boucher J (2004) Fishing eﬀects on diversity, size and community structure of the benthic invertebrate and ﬁsh megafauna on the Bay of Biscay coast of France. Marine Ecology Progress Series 280:249-260. Blyth RE, Kaiser MJ, Edwards-Jones G and Hart PJB (2004) Implications of a zoned ﬁshery management system for marine benthic communities. Journal of Applied Ecology 41:951-961. Blyth RE, Kaiser MJ, Edwards-Jones G, Hart PJB (2002) Voluntary management in an inshore ﬁshery has conservation beneﬁts. Environmental Conservation 29:493-508. Blyth-Skryme RE, Kaiser MJ, Hiddink JG, Edwards-Jones G, Hart PJB (2006) Conservation Beneﬁts of Temperate Marine Protected Areas: Variation among Fish Species. Conservation Biology 20:811- 820. Bohnsack JA (1998) Application of marine reserves to reef ﬁsheries management. Australian Journal of Ecology 23:298-304. Botsford LW, Micheli F, Hastings A (2003) Principles for the design of marine reserves. Ecological Applications 13:25-31 3. Brazeiro A, Defeo O (1999) Eﬀects of harvesting and density dependence on the demography of sandy beach populations: the yellow clam Mesodesma mactroides of Uruguay. Marine Ecology Progress Series 182:127-135. Brown K, Adger WN, Tompkins E, Bacon P, Shim D and Young K (2001) Trade-oﬀ analysis for marine protected area management. Ecological Economics 37: 417-434. Butcher PA, Boulton AJ, Smith SDA (2002) Mud crab (Scylla serrata: Portunidae) populations as indicators of the eﬀectiveness of estuarine marine protected areas. World Congress on Aquatic Protected Areas Proceedings: 421-427. 20 Buxton CD (1993) Life-history changes in exploited reef ﬁshes on the east coast of South Africa. Environmental Biology of Fishes 36:47-63. Buxton CD, Smale MJ (1989) Abundance and distribution patterns of three temperate marine reef ﬁsh (Teleostei:Sparidae) in exploited and unexploited areas oﬀ the southern cape coast. Journal of Applied Ecology 26:441-451. Campbell ML, Hewitt CL (2006) A hierarchical framework to aid biodiversity assessment for coastal zone management and marine protected area selection. Ocean and Coastal Management 49:133-146. Cappo MC, MacNeil MA, Stowar MJ and Doherty PJ (2009a) The inﬂuence of zoning (closure to ﬁshing) on ﬁsh communities of the deep shoals and reef bases of the southern Great Barrier Reef. Part 1 - Baited video surveys of the Pompey, Swain and Capricorn-Bunker groups of reefs oﬀ Mackay and Gladstone. MTSRF Research Report No. 37 ISBN 9781921359361. Reef and Rainforest Research Centre and Australian Institute of Marine Science. 53 p. Cappo MC, De’ath AG, Stowar MJ, Johannson C and Doherty PJ (2009b) The inﬂuence of zoning (closure to ﬁshing) on ﬁsh communities of the deep shoals and reef bases of the southern Great Barrier Reef. Part 2 - Development of protocols to improve accuracy in baited video techniques used to detect eﬀects of zoning. MTSRF Research Report No. 38 ISBN 9781921359378. Reef and Rainforest Research Centre and Australian Institute of Marine Science. 44 p. Cappo MC, Stowar MJ and MacNeil MA (2010) The inﬂuence of zoning (closure to ﬁshing) on ﬁsh communities of the deep shoals and reef bases of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. Result of repeated surveys of the southern bank and Cardwell shoals, and an overview with regional comparisons. Reef and Rainforest Research Centre. Carleton Ray G (1999) Coastal-marine protected areas: agonies of choice. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 9:607-614. Carleton Ray G (2004) Reconsidering ‘dangerous targets’ for marine protected areas. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 14:211-215. Carr, M.H., Neigel, J.E., Estes, J.A., Andelman, S., Warner, R.R. and Largier, J.L. (2003) Comparing marine and terrestrial ecosystems: implications for the design of coastal marine reserves. Ecological Applications, 13(1) Supplement, pp S90-S107. Castilla JC (1999) Coastal Marine Communities: Trends and Perspectives from Human-Exclusion Experiments. TREE 14:280-283. Castilla, J.C., Fernandez, M., 1998. Small-scale benthic ﬁsheries in Chile: on co-management and sustainable use of benthic invertebrates. Ecological Applications. 8, S124– S132. Castilla JC, Bustamante RH (1989) Human exclusion from rocky intertidal of Las Cruces, central Chile: eﬀects on Durvillaea antarctica (Phaeophyta, Durvilleales). Marine Ecology Progress Series 50:203- 214. Chapman MR, Kramer DL (1999) Gradients in coral reef ﬁsh density and size across the Barbados Marine Reserve boundary: eﬀects of reserve protection and habitat characteristics. Marine Ecology Progress Series 181:81-96. Chiappone M, Sluka R, Sealy KS (2000) Groupers (Pisces: Serranidae) in ﬁshed and protected areas of the Florida Keys, Bahamas and northern Caribbean. Marine Ecology Progress Series 198: 261-272. 21 Chiappone M, White A, Swanson DW, Miller SL (2002) Occurrence and biological impacts of ﬁshing gear and other marine debris in the Florida Keys. Marine Pollution Bulletin 44:597-604. Cho L (2005) Marine protected areas: a tool for integrated coastal management in Belize. Ocean and Coastal Management 48: 932-947. Cinner, J. & Fuentes, M. (2008) Human Dimensions of Madagascar’s Marine Protected Areas. CORDIO Status Report. Cinner, J.E., Wamukota, A., Randriamahazo, H. & Rabearisoa, A. (2009) Toward institutions for communitybased management of inshore marine resources in the Western Indian Ocean. Marine Policy, 33, 489-496. Cinner, J., McClanahan, T. & Wamukota, A. (2010) Diﬀerences in livelihoods, socioeconomic characteristics, and knowledge about the sea between ﬁshers and non-ﬁshers living near and far from marine parks on the Kenyan coast. Marine Policy, 34, 22-28. Claudet J, Pelletier D (2004) Marine protected areas and artiﬁcial reefs: a review of the interactions between management and scientiﬁc studies. Aquatic Living Resources 17:129-138. Claudet, J., Pelletier, D., Jouvenel, J.Y., Bachet, F., Galzin, R., (2006). Assessing the eﬀects of marine protected area (MPA) on a reef ﬁsh assemblage in a northwestern Mediterranean marine reserve: identifying community-based indicators. Biological Conservation 130, 349–369. Claudet, J.,Osenberg,C.W.,Benedetti-Cecchi,L., Domenici, P.,Garcia-Charton,J.A., Perez-Ruzafa, A., et al. (2008) Marine reserves: Size and age do matter. Ecology Letters, 1, 481–489. Claudet, J., Osenberg, C.W., Benedetti-Cecchi, L., Domenici, P., García-Charton, J., Pérez-Ruzafa, Á., Badalamenti, F., Bayle-Sempere, J., Brito, A., Bulleri, F., Culioli, J., Dimech, M., Falcón, J.M., Guala, I., Milazzo, M., Sánchez-Meca, J., Somerﬁeld, P.J., Stobart, B., Vandeperre, F., Valle, C. & Planes, S. (2008) Marine reserves: size and age do matter. Ecology Letters, 11, 481-489. Cole RG (1994) Abundance, size structure, and diver-oriented behaviour of three large benthic carnivorous ﬁshes in a marine reserve in Northeastern New Zealand. Biological Conservation 70:93- 99. Cole RG, Ayling TM, Creese RG (1990) Eﬀects of marine reserve protection at Goat Island, northern New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 24:197-210. Cole RG, Keuskamp D (1998) Indirect eﬀects of protection from exploitation: patterns from populations of Evechinus chloroticus (Echinoidea) in northeastern New Zealand. Marine Ecology Progress Series 173:215226 4. Cole, R. G., E. Villouta & R. J. Davidson, (2000). Direct evidence of limited dispersal of the reef ﬁsh Parapercis colias (Pinguipedidae) within a marine reserve and adjacent ﬁshed areas. Aquatic Conservation Marine Freshwater Ecosystem 10: 421–436. Committee on the Evaluation, Design, and Monitoring of Marine Reserves and Protected Areas in the United States, Ocean Studies Board, National Research Council. Marine Protected Areas: Tools for Sustaining Ocean Ecosystems (Free Executive Summary) http://www.nap.edu/catalog/9994.html. Cowley PD, Brouwer SL, Tilney RL (2002) The role of the Tsitsikamma National Park in the management of four shore-angling ﬁsh along the south-eastern Cape Coast of South Africa. South African Journal of Marine Science 24:27-35. 22 Creese B, Breen D (2003) Marine protected areas in New South Wales, Australia: challenges for research. pp 120-128 in Conserving Marine Environments. Out of sight, out of mind, edited by P.Hutchings and D. Lunney. Royal Zoological Society of NSW, Mosman, NSW. Curley BG, Kingsford MJ, Bronwyn MG (2002) Spatial and habitat-related patterns of temperate reef ﬁsh assemblages: implications for the design of Marine Protected Areas. Marine and Freshwater Research 53:1197-1210. Dalton TM (2004) An approach for integrating economic impact analysis into evaluation of potential marine protected area sites. Journal of Environmental Management 70:333-349. Dalton TM (2005) Beyond biogeography: a framework for involving the public in planning of US Marine Protected Areas. Conservation Biology 19:1392-1401. Daskalov GM (2002) Overﬁshing drives a trophic cascade in the Black Sea. Marine Ecology Progress Series 225:53-63. Davidson, R. J. (2001) Changes in population parameters and behaviour of blue cod, (Parapercis colias: Pinguipedidae) in Long Island—Kokomohua Marine Reserve, Marlborough Sounds, New Zealand. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 11:417–435. Day, J (2008) The need and practice of monitoring, evaluating and adapting marine planning and management--lessons from the Great Barrier Reef, Marine Policy, 2008, vol. 32, issue 5, pages 823-831. Day, V., Paxinos, R., Emmett, J., Wright, A., & Goecker, M. (2008). The Marine Planning Framework for South Australia: A new ecosystem-based zoning policy for marine management. Marine Policy, 32(4), 535-543. Dayton PK, Thrush SF, Agardy MT, Hofman RJ (1995) Environmental eﬀects of marine ﬁshing. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 5:205-232. Dayton, P. K., Sala, E., Tegner, M. J., and Thrush, S. (2000). Marine reserves: Parks, baselines, and ﬁshery enhancement. Bulletin of Marine Science, 66(3), 617-634. Denny CM, Babcock RC (2004) Do partial marine reserves protect reef ﬁsh assemblages? Biological Conservation 116:119-129. Denny CM, Willis TJ, Babcock RC (2004) Rapid recolonisation of snapper Pagrus auratus: Sparidae within an oﬀshore island marine reserve after implementation of no-take status. Marine Ecology Progress Series 272:183-190. Dinmore TA, Duplisea DE, Rackham BD, Maxwell DL, Jennings S (2003) Impact of a large-scale area closure on patterns of ﬁshing disturbance and the consequences for benthic communities. ICES Journal of Marine Science 60:371-380. Donohue MJ, Boland RC, Sramek CM, Antonelis GA (2000) Derelict Fishing Gear in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands: Diving Surveys and Debris Removal in 1999 Conﬁrm Threat to Coral Reef Ecosystems. Marine Pollution Bulletin 42:1301-1312. Drechsler M (2005) Probabilistic approaches to scheduling reserve selection. Biological Conservation 122:253-262. Dufour V, Jouvenel J, Galzin R (1995) Study of Mediterranean reef ﬁsh assemblage: Comparisons of 23 population distributions between depths in protected and unprotected areas over one decade. Aquatic Living Resources 8:17-25. Dugan JE, Davis GE (1993) Applications of marine refugia to coastal ﬁsheries management. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Science 50:2029-2042. Ecological Applications 15:1798-1181. Edgar GJ, Barrett NS (1997) Short term monitoring of biotic change in Tasmanian marine reserves. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 213:261-279. Edgar GJ, Barrett NS (1999) Eﬀects of the declaration of marine reserves on Tasmanian reef ﬁshes, invertebrates and plants. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 242:107-144. Egli DP, Babcock RC (2004) Ultrasonic tracking reveals multiple behavioural modes of snapper (Pagrus auratus) in a temperate no-take marine reserve. ICES Journal of Marine Science 61:1137-1143. Evans RD, Russ GR (2004) Larger biomass of targeted reef ﬁsh in no-take marine reserves on the Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Aquatic Conservation-Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 14:505-519. Fernandes, L., Day, J., Lewis, A. Slegers, S., Kerrigan, B., Breen, D., Cameron, D., Jago, B., Hall, J., Lowe, D., Innes, J., Tanzer, J., Chadwick, V., Thompson, L., Gorma, K., Simmons, M., Barnett, B., Sampson, K., De’Ath, GH., Mapstone, B., Marhs, M., Possingham, H., Ball, I., Ward, T., Dobbs, K., Aumend, J., Slater, D., and Stapleton, K (2005) Establishing representative no-take areas in the Great Barrier Reef. Large-scale implementation of theory on marine protected areas, Conservation Biology 19 (6) (2005), pp. 1733–1744. Ferrier S (2002) Mapping spatial pattern in biodiversity for regional conservation planning: Where to from here? Systematic Biology 51:331-363. Foley, MM., Micheli, F., Armsby, MH., et al. (2010). Guiding ecological principles for marine spatial planning. Marine Policy, 34(5), 955-966. Francis J, Nilsson A, and Waruinge D (2002) Marine Protected Areas in the East African Region: How successful are they? Ambio: A Journal of the Human Environment 31: 503-511. Francour P, Harmelin G.J, Pollard D, Sartoretto S (2001) A review of marine protected areas in the northwestern Mediterranean region: siting, usage, zonation and Management. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 11:155-188. Friedlander AM, DeMartini EE (2002) Contrasts in density, size, and biomass of reef ﬁshes between the northwestern and the main Hawaiian islands: the eﬀects of ﬁshing down apex predators. Marine Ecology Progress Series 230:253-264. Friedlander AM, Brown EK, Jokiel PL, Smith WR, Rodgers KS (2003) Eﬀects of habitat, wave exposure, and marine protected area status on coral reef ﬁsh assemblages in the Hawaiian archipelago. Coral Reefs 22:291-305. Freidlander A, Sladek Nowlis J, Sanchez JA, Appeldoorn R, Usseglio P, McCormick C, Bejarno S, MitchellChui A (2003) Designing eﬀective marine protected areas in Seaﬂower Biosphere Reserve, Colombia, based on biological and sociological information. Conservation Biology 17:1769-1784. Gaines SD, Gaylord B, Largier JL (2003) Avoiding current oversights in marine reserve design. Ecological Applications 13:32-46. Galal N (1999) Studies on the coastal ecology and management of the Nabq Protected Area, South Sinai, Egypt. Dphil Thesis, University of York, UK, 248 pp. 24 Galal, N., R. F. G. Ormond & Hassan O. (2002) Eﬀect of a network of no-take reserves in increasing catch per unit eﬀort and stocks of exploited reef ﬁsh at Nabq. South Sinai, Egypt. Marine and Freshwater Research 53, 199–205. Garcıa-Charton, A, Ody, D, Perez-Ruza, A, Renones, G, Sanchez-Jerez, P and Valle, C. (2008) Gradients of abundance and biomass across reserve boundaries in six Mediterranean marine protected areas: Evidence of ﬁsh spillover?, Biological Conservation 141, pp. 1829 –1839. Gell, F. R. & C. M. Roberts, (2002). The ﬁshery eﬀects of marine reserves and ﬁshery closures. World Wildlife Fund-United States, Washington, D.C., USA. Gell, F.R. & Roberts,C.M.(2003).Beneﬁts beyond boundaries: The ﬁshery eﬀects of marine reserves. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 18, 448–455. Gerber LR, Beger M, McCarthy MA, Possingham HP (2005) A theory for optimal monitoring of marine reserves. Ecology Letters 8:829-837. Gerber LR, Botsford LW, Hastings A, Possingham HP, Gaines SD, Palumbi SR, Andelman S (2003) Population models for marine reserve design: a retrospective and prospective synthesis. Ecological Applications 13: 47-64. Gerbera LR, Kareivab PM, Bascompte J (2002) The inﬂuence of life history attributes and ﬁshing pressure on the eﬃcacy of marine reserves. Biological Conservation 106:11-18. GESAMP (1996) Systems design of protected areas National System Planning for Protected Areas, by Adrian G. Davey. Best Practice Protected Area Guidelines Series No. 1. IUCN, 1998. Gillanders BM (2002) Connectivity between juvenile and adult ﬁsh populations: do adults remain near their recruitment estuaries? Marine Ecology Progress Series 240:215-223. Gillanders BM, Able KW, Brown JA, Eggleston DB, Sheridan PF (2003) Evidence of connectivity between juvenile and adult habitats for mobile marine fauna: an important component of nurseries. Marine Ecology Progress Series 247:281-295. Gladstone W (2002) The potential value of indicator groups in the selection of marine reserves. Biological Conservation 104:211-220. Gladstone W (2007) Requirements for marine protected areas to conserve the biodiversity of rocky reef ﬁshes. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 17:71-87. Gladstone W, Alexander T (2005) A test of the higher-taxon approach in the identiﬁcation of candidate sites for marine reserves. Biodiversity and Conservation 14:3151-3168. Gladstone W, Krupp K, Younis M (2003) Development and management of a network of marine protected areas in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden region. Ocean and Coastal Management 46:741-761. Goeden GB (1982) Intensive ﬁshing and a “Keystone” predator species: ingredients for community instability. Biology Conservation 22:273-281. Goñi, R., Reñones, O. & Quetglas, A., (2001). Dynamics of a protected Western Mediterranean population of the European spiny lobster Palinurus elephas (Fabricius, 1787) assessed by trap surveys. Marine and Freshwater Research, 52(8): 1577–1587. 25 Goni, R., A. Quetglas & O. Renones, (2006). Spillover of spiny lobsters Palinurus elephas from a marine reserve to an adjoining ﬁshery. Marine Ecology Progress Series 306: 207–219. Goñi R, Hilborn R, Díaz D, Mallol S, Adlerstein S (2010) Net contribution of spill over from a marine reserve to ﬁshery catches. Marine Ecology Progress Series 400:233–243. Grafton RQ, Kompas T (2005) Uncertainty and the active adaptive management of marine protected areas. Marine Policy 29:471-479. Grafton, R.Q., Kompas, T., Von Ha, P., (2006). The economic payoﬀs from marine reserves: resource rents in a stochastic environment. Economic Record 82, 469–480. Graham NAJ, Evans RD, Russ GR (2003) The eﬀects of marine reserve protection on the trophic relationships of reef ﬁshes on the Great Barrier Reef. Environmental Conservation 30:200-208. Grantham BA, Eckert GL, Shanks AL (2003) Dispersal potential of marine invertebrates in diverse habitats. Ecological Applications, 13(1) Supplement, pp108-116. Guenette S, Lauck T, Clarke C (1998) Marine reserves: from Beverton and Holt to the present. Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 8:251-272. Guenette, S., Pitcher, T.J., (1999). An age-structured model showing the beneﬁts of marine reserves in controlling overexploitation. Fisheries Research 39, 295–303. Guidetti, P., Milazzo, M., Bussotti, S., Molinari, A., Murenu, M., Pais, A., Spanò, N., Balzano, R., Agardy, T., Boero, F., Carrada, G., Cattaneo-Vietti, R., Cau, A., Chemello, R., Greco, S., Manganaro, A., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Russo, G.F. & Tunesi, L. (2008) Italian marine reserve eﬀectiveness: Does enforcement matter? Biological Conservation, 141, 699-709. Guidetti P (2002) The importance of experimental design in detecting the eﬀects of protection measures on ﬁsh in Mediterranean MPAs. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 12:619- 634. Guidetti P (2006) Marine reserves re-establish lost predatory interactions and cause community changes in rocky reefs. Ecological Applications 16:963-976. Guidetti, P., (2007). Potential of marine reserves to cause community-wide changes beyond their boundaries. Conservation Biology 21, 540–545. Guidetti P, Fanelli G, Fraschetti S, Terlizzi A, Boero F (2002) Coastal ﬁsh indicate human-induced changes in the Mediterranean littoral. Marine Environmental Research 53:77-94. Halpern BS, Warner RR (2002) Marine reserves have rapid and lasting eﬀects. Ecology Letters 5: 361- 366. Halpern BS (2003) The impact of marine reserves: Do marine reserves work and does reserve size matter? Ecological Applications 3:117-137. Halpern, B.S., Gaines, S.D., Warner, R.R., (2004). Confounding eﬀects of the export of production and the displacement of ﬁshing eﬀort from marine reserves. Ecological Applications 14, 1248–1256. Halpern BS, Regan HM, Possingham HP, McCarthy MA (2006) Accounting for uncertainty in marine reserve design. Ecology Letters 9:2-11. 26 Halpern, B.S., Walbridge, S., Selkoe, K.A., Kappel, C.V., Micheli, F., D’Agrosa, C., Bruno, J.F., Casey, K.S., Ebert, C., Fox, H.E., Fujita, R., Heinemann, D., Lenihan, H.S., Madin, E.M.P., Perry, M.T., Selig, E.R., Spalding, M., Steneck, R. & Watson, R. (2008) A Global Map of Human Impact on Marine Ecosystems. Science, 319, 948952. Harborne, A. R., P. J. Mumby, C. V. Kappel, C. P. Dahlgren, F. Micheli, K. E. Holmes, J. N. Sanchirico, K. Broad, I. A. Elliott, and D. R. Brumbaugh. (2008). Reserve eﬀects and natural variation in coral reef communities. Journal of Applied Ecology 45: 1010-1018. Harborne, A.R., P.J. Mumby, C.V. Kappel, C.P. Dahlgren, F. Micheli, K.E. Holmes, and D.R. Brumbaugh. 2008a. Tropical coastal habitats as surrogates of ﬁsh community structure, grazing, and ﬁsheries value. Ecological Applications 18: 1689-1701. Harmelin, J.G., Bachet, F., Garcia, F., (1995). Mediterranean marine reserves: ﬁsh indices as tests of protection eﬃciency. PSZNI: Marine Ecology 16, 233–250. Harmelin-Vivien,M, Le Direa, L, Bayle-Sempere, J, Charbonnel, E, Hussain, S., Winrow-Giﬃn, S., Moran, A., Robinson, D., Fofana, L., Paramor, A., Frid, O., and Chris L.J. (2010) An ex ante ecological economic assessment of the beneﬁts arising from marine protected areas designation in the UK, Ecological Economics, 69, (4), 828-838. Hastings A, Botsford LW (2003) Comparing designs of marine reserves for ﬁsheries and for biodiversity. Ecological Applications, 13(1) Supplement, pp65-70. Hawkins JP, Roberts CM (1993) Eﬀects of recreational scuba diving on coral reefs: trampling on reef ﬂat communities. J Appl Ecol 30: 25-30 . Hilborn, R., (2002). Marine reserves and ﬁsheries management- Reply to C.M. Roberts. Science 295: 1233– 1234. Hobday A, Punt AE, Smith DC (2005) Modelling the eﬀects of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) on the southern rock lobster (Jasus edwardsii) ﬁshery of Victoria, Australia. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 39:675-686. Hocking M, Stolton S, Dudley N (2000) Evaluating eﬀectiveness: A framework for assessing the management of protected areas. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 121 pages.. Holland, K. N., J. D. Peterson, and B. M. Wetherbee. (1993). Movements, distribution and growth rates of the white goatﬁsh Mulloides ﬂavolineatus in a ﬁsheries conservation zone. Bulletin of Marine Science 52:982–992. Horwood JW, Nichols JH, Milligan S (1998) Evaluation of closed areas for ﬁsh stock conservation. Journal of Applied Ecology 35:893-903. Iacchei M, Robinson P, Miller KA (2005) Direct impacts of commercial and recreational ﬁshing on spiny lobster, Panulirus interruptus, populations at Santa Catalina Island, California, United States. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 39:1201-1214. IUCN (1994) 1998 Protected area categories Guidelines for Protected Area Management Categories, Best Practice Protected Area Guidelines Series No. 2. Jameson SC, Ammar MSA, Saadalla E, Mostafa HM, Riegl B (1999) A coral damage index and its application to diving sites in the Egyptian Red Sea. Coral Reefs Special Issue on The Science of Coral Reef Management, Coral Reefs 18(4):333-339. 27 Jamieson GS, Levings CO (2001) Marine protected areas in Canada-implications for both conservation and ﬁsheries management. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Science 58:138-156. Jentoft, S (2004) The Community in Fisheries Management in Challenges, opportunities and Risks. Fisheries Development: The Institutional Challenge (eds B. Hersoug, S Jentoft and P Degnbol) pp 93 – 129. Delft: Eburon press. Jentoft, S (2007) In the power of Power: The Understated Aspect of Fisheries management, Human Organisation, 66 (4): 426 – 437. Jentoft, S and Chunepagdee, R (2009) Fisheries and Coastal Governance as a wicked problem, Marine Policy, 33: 553 – 560. Jennings S, Kaiser MJ (1998) The eﬀects of ﬁshing on marine ecosystems. Advances in Marine Biology 34:201-351. Jennings S, Marshall SS, Polunin NVC (1996) Seychelles’ marine protected areas: Comparative structure and status of reef ﬁsh communities. Biological Conservation 75:201-209. Jones, G. (2000). Outcomes-based evaluation of management for protected areas – a methodology for incorporating evaluation into management plans. In: Rana, D. and Edelman, E. (Eds). The Design and Management of Forest Protected Areas. WWF International, Gland, Switzerland Jones PJS (2002) Marine protected area strategies: issues, divergences and the search for middle ground. Review in Fish Biology and Fisheries 11:197-216. Jones, P (2007) Point of view: arguments for conventional ﬁsheries management and against no-take marine-protected areas: only half of the story?, Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 17, 31–43. Jones, P (2009) Equity, justice and power issues raised by no-take marine protected area proposals Marine Policy 33 (2009) 759–765. Jones PJS, Burgess J (2005) Building partnership capacity for the collaborative management of marine protected areas in the UK: a preliminary analysis. Journal of Environmental Management 77:227- 243. Jones PJS & Carpenter A (2009) Crossing the divide: the challenges of designing an ecologically coherent and representative network of MPAs for the UK. Marine Policy 33(5), 737-743. Jordan A, Lawler M, Halley V, Barrett N (2005) Seabed habitat mapping in the Kent Group of islands and its role in Marine protected area planning. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 15:5170. Jouvenel J, Pollard DA (2001) Some eﬀects of marine reserve protection on the population structure of two spearﬁshing target-ﬁsh species, Dicentrarchus labrax (Moronidae) and Sparus aurata (Sparidae), in shallow inshore waters, along a rocky coast in the northwestern Mediterranean Sea. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 11:1-9. Kaiser MJ (2005) Are marine protected areas a red herring or ﬁsheries panacea? Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 62:1194-1199. Kaiser MJ, Austen MVC, Ojaveer H (2004) European biodiversity action plan for ﬁsheries: issues for nontarget species. Fisheries Research 69:1-6. Kaiser MJ, Spence FE, Hart PJB (2000). Fishing-gear restrictions and conservation of benthic habitat complexity. Conservation Biology, 14(5):1512-1525. 28 Kamukuru AT, Mgaya YD, Öhman MC (2004) Evaluating a marine protected area in a developing country: Maﬁa Island Marine Park, Tanzania. Ocean and Coastal Management 47:321-337. Kaunda-Arara B, Rose GA (2004) Eﬀects of marine reef national parks on ﬁshery CPUE in coastal Kenya. Biological Conservation 118:1-13. Kelleher G. (1999) Guidelines for Marine Protected Areas. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. xxiv +107 pages. Kelleher, G., C. Bleakley, and S. Wells. (1995). A global representative system of marine protected areas. Volumes 1– 4. Environment Department, The World Bank,Washington, D.C., USA. Kelly S, Scott D, MacDiarmid AB, Babcock RC (2000) Spiny lobster, Jasus edwardsii, recovery in New Zealand marine reserves. Biological Conservation 92:359-369. Kelly, S., D. Scott & A. B. MacDiarmid, (2002) The value of a spillover ﬁshery for spiny lobsters around a marine reserve in New Zealand. Coastal Management 30: 153–166. Kelly, S. & A. B. MacDiarmid, (2003) Movements patterns of mature spiny lobsters, Jasus edwardsii, from a marine reserve. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwaters Research 37: 149–158. Kenchington RA, Bleakley C. (1994) Identifying priorities for marine protected areas in the insular Paciﬁc. Marine Pollution Bulletin; 29:3–9. King MC, Beazley KF (2005) Selecting focal species for marine protected area network planning in the Scotia-Fundy region of Atlantic Canada. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 15:367385. Kittinger, J.N., Duin, K.N., Wilcox, B. (2010). Commercial ﬁshing, conservation and compatibility in the northwestern Hawaiian Islands. Marine Policy 34:208-217. Kleczkowski M, Babcock RC, Clapin G (2008) Density and size of reef ﬁshes in and around a temperate marine reserve Marine and Freshwater Research 59:165-176. Klein C, Chan A, Kircher L, Cundiﬀ AJ, Gardner N, Hrovat Y, et al. Striking a balance between biodiversity conservation and socioeconomic viability in the design of marine protected areas. Conservation Biology 2007;22(3): 691–700. Kramer, D. L., and M. R. Chapman. (1999). Implications of ﬁsh home range size and relocation for marine reserve function. Environmental Biology of Fishes 55:65–79. Kritzer JP (2004) Eﬀects of noncompliance on the success of alternative designs of marine protected area networks for conservation and ﬁsheries management. Conservation Biology 18:1021-1031. Langlois TJ, Ballantyne WJ (2005) Marine ecological research in New Zealand: Developing predictive models through the study of no-take marine reserves. Conservation Biology 19:1763-1770. Lauck T, Clark CW, Mangel M, Munro GR (1998) Implementing the precautionary principle in ﬁsheries management through marine reserves. Ecological Applications 8:572-578. Leslie H (2005) A Synthesis of Marine Conservation Planning Approaches. Conservation Biology 19:17011713. 29 Leslie H, Ruckelshaus R, Ball IR, Andelman S, Possingham HP (2003) Using siting algorithms in the design of marine reserve networks. Ecological Applications 13: 185-198. Ley J, Halliday I, Tobin A, Garrett R, Gribble N (2002) Ecosystem eﬀects of ﬁshing closures in mangrove estuaries of tropical Australia. Marine Ecology Progress Series 245:223-238. Lindholm J, Auster P, Valentine P (2004) Role of a large marine protected area for conserving landscape attributes of sand habitats on Georges Bank (NW Atlantic). Marine Ecology Progress Series 269:61-68. Lindholm JB, Auster PJ, Ruth M, Kaufman L (2001) Modeling the eﬀects of ﬁshing and implications for design of marine protected areas: Juvenile ﬁsh responses to variations in seaﬂoor habitat. Conservation Biology 15:424-437. Lubchenco J, Palumbi SR, Gaines SD, Andelman S (2003) Plugging a hole in the ocean: The emerging science of marine reserves. Ecological Applicantions 13. Lundquist CJ, Granek EF (2005) Strategies for Successful Marine Conservation: Integrating Socioeconomic, Political, and Scientiﬁc Factors. Conservation Biology 19:1771-1778. Lynch TP (2006) Incorporation of recreational ﬁshing eﬀort into design of marine protected areas. Conservation Biology 20(5):1466-1476. Malcolm HA, Gladstone W, Lindﬁeld S, Wraith J, Lynch TP (2007) Spatial and temporal variation in reef ﬁsh assemblages of marine parks in New South Wales, Australia - baited video observations. Marine Ecology Progress Series 350:277-290. Maliao RJ, Webb EL, Jensen KR (2004) A survey of stock of the donkey’s ear abalone, Haliotis asinina in the Sagay Marine Reserve, Philippines: evaluating the eﬀectiveness of marine protected area enforcement. Fisheries Research 66:343-353. Malvadkar, U. and A. Hastings. (2008) Persistence of mobile species in marine protected areas. Fisheries Research 91: 69-78. Manriquez PH, Carlos Castilla J (2001) Signiﬁcance of marine protected areas in central Chile as seeding grounds for the gastropod Concholepas concholepas. Marine Ecology Progress Series 215:201-211. Mapstone B, Marsh H, Possingham H, Ball I, Ward T, Dobbs K, Aumend J, Slater D and Stapleton K (2005) Establishing Representative No-Take Areas in the Great Barrier Reef: Large-Scale Implementation of Theory on Marine Protected Areas. Conservation Biology 19:1733-1744. Margules CR, Pressey RL (2000) Systematic conservation planning. Nature 405:243-253. Margules CR, Nicholls AO, Pressey RL. (1988). Selecting networks of reserves to maximise biological diversity. Biological Conservation 43: 63–76. Martell S, Essington T, Lessard B, Kitchell J, Walters C, Boggs C (2005) Interactions of productivity, predation risk, and ﬁshing eﬀort in the eﬃcacy of marine protected areas for the central paciﬁc. Canadian Journal of Fish and Aquatic Sciences 62:1320-1336. Maypa AP, Russ GR, Alcala AC, Calumpong HP (2002) Long-term trends in yield and catch rates .of the coral reef ﬁshery at Apo Island, central Philippines. Marine and Freshwater Research 53:207-213. 30 McClanahan TR (1989) Kenyan coral reef-associated gastropod fauna: a comparison between protected and unprotected reefs. Marine Ecology Progress Series 53:11-20. McClanahan TR (2000) Recovery of a coral reef keystone predator, Balistapus undulatus, in East African marine parks. Biological Conservation 94: 191-198. McClanahan, T.R., Shaﬁr, S.H., (1990). Causes and consequences of sea urchin abundance and diversity in Kenyan coral reef lagoon. Oecologia 83, 362–370. McClanahan, T.R., Mutere, J.C., (1994). Coral and sea urchin assemblage structure and interrelationships in Kenyan coral reef lagoons. Hydrobiologia 286, 109–124. McClanahan, T. R., and B. Kaunda-Arara. (1996). Fishery recovery in a coral-reef marine park and its eﬀect on the adjacent ﬁshery. Conservation Biology 10:1187–1199. McClanahan, T.R., Muthiga, N.A., Kamukuru, A.T., Machano, H., Kiambo, R.W., (1999). The eﬀects of marine parks and ﬁshing on coral reefs of northern Tanzania. Biological Conservation. 89, 161–182. McClanahan, T.R., Mangi, S., (2000). Spillover of exploitable ﬁshes from a marine park and its eﬀect on the adjacent ﬁshery. Ecological Applications. 10, 1792– 1805. McClanahan TR, Davies J, Maina J (2005) Factors inﬂuencing resource users and managers’ perceptions towards marine protected area management in Kenya. Environmental Conservation 32:42-49. McClanahan TR, Graham NAJ (2005) Recovery trajectories of coral reef ﬁsh assemblages within Kenyan marine protected areas. Marine Ecology Progress Series 292:241-248. McClanahan TR, Maina J, Davies J (2005) Perceptions of resource users and managers towards ﬁsheries management options in Kenyan coral reefs. Fisheries Management and Ecology 12: 105- 112. McLeod, E, Salm, R, Green, A, and Almany J (2009). Designing marine protected area networks to address the impacts of climate change. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 7: 362–370. McNeill SE (1994) The selection and design of marine protected areas: Australia as a case study. Biodiversity and Conservation 3:586-605. McCook, L., Ayling, T., Cappo, M., Choat, H., Evans, R., De Freitas, D., Heupel, M., Hughes, T., Jones, G., Mapstone, B., Marsh, H., Mills, M., Molloy, F., Pitcher, CR., Pressey, R., Russ, G., Sutton, S., Sweatman, H., Tobin, R., Wachenfeld, D., and Williamson, D. (2011) Adaptive management of the Great Barrier Reef: A globally signiﬁcant demonstration of the beneﬁts of networks of marine reserves, PNAS early (online edition) Molloy, P Reynolds, J, Matthew, J, Gagea, J and Iago M, Lloret, J, de Sola, G, Souplet, A and Galzin, R (2002) Links between sex change and ﬁsh densities in marine protected areas ICES Journal of Marine Science 59:1215-1217. Molloy, P., Reynolds, J., Gage, M, Mosqueira, I and Cote, I (2008) Links between sex change and ﬁsh densities in marine protected areas, Biological Conservation, 187 –197. Morin Dalton T (2004) An approach for integrating economic impact analysis into the evaluation of potential marine protected area sites. Journal of Environmental Management 70: 333-349. Mosquera I, Cote IM, Jennings S, Reynolds JD (2000) Conservation beneﬁts of marine reserves for ﬁsh 31 populations. Animal Conservation 4:321–332. Mumby PJ, Harborne AR (2010) Marine Reserves Enhance the Recovery of Corals on Caribbean Reefs. PLoS ONE 5(1): e8657. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0008657. Murawski SA, Brown R, Lai H-L, Rago PJ, Hendrickson L (2000) Large-scale closed areas as a ﬁshery management tool in temperate marine systems: the Georges Bank experiment. Bulletin of Marine Science 66:775-798. Murawski SA, Wigley SE, Fogarty MJ, Rago PJ, Mountain DG (2005) Eﬀort distribution and catch patterns adjacent to temperate MPAs. ICES Journal of Marine Science 62:1150-1167. Nardi K, Jones GP, Moran MJ, Cheng YW (2004) Contrasting eﬀects of marine protected areas on the abundance of two exploited reef ﬁshes at the sub-tropical Houtman Abrolhos Islands, Western Australia. Environmental Conservation 31:160-168. NCEAS, National Centre for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis, (2001) Scientiﬁc Consensus Statement on Marine Reserves and Marine Protected Areas. http://www.nceas.ucsb.edu/. Noble, B (2000) Institutional criteria for co-management, Marine Policy Volume 24, Issue 1, January 2000, 69-77. NRC [National Research Council (USA)]. (2001). Marine protected areas: tools for sustaining ocean ecosystems. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., USA. Nursey-Bray and Rist, P (2009) Co- management and Protected Area Management: Achieving Continuum in a Contested Site, lessons from the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area (GBRWHA). Marine Policy, Vol 33, (1) 118 – 127. Nursey-Bray, M. (2009) A Guugu Yimmithir Bam Wii: Ngawiya and Girrbithi: Hunting, planning and management along the Great Barrier Reef, Australia, Geoforum, 40, 442 – 453. Olsson P and C Folke. (2001). Local Ecological Knowledge and Institutional Dynamics for Ecosystem Management: A Study of Lake Racken Watershed ,Sweden. Ecosystems 4: 85-104. Olsson P, C Folke, and F Berkes (2004). Adaptive co-management for building social-ecological resilience, Environmental Management 34:75-90. Olsson, P., Folke, C., Hahn, T. (2004). Social-ecological transformations for ecosystem management: the development of adaptive co-management of a wetland landscape in southern Sweden. Ecology and Society 9(4): 2. [online] URL: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol9/iss4/art2 Ostrom, E. (1990) Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action, Cambridge University Press. Palumbi SR (2003) Population genetics, demographic connectivity, and the design of marine reserves. Ecological Applications 13(1) Supplement:146–158. PARKS 8 (2) (1998) World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA). Parma, A and NCEAS Working Group on Population Management (1998) What can adaptive management do for our ﬁsh, forests, food, and biodiversity?, Integrative Biology 1 (16) (1998), p. 26. Parsons DM, Babcock RC, Hankin RKS, Willis TJ, Aitken JP, O’Dor RK, Jackson GD (2003) Snapper Pagrus auratus (Sparidae) home range dynamics: acoustic tagging studies in a marine reserve. Marine Ecology Progress Series 262: 253-265. 32 Parsons DM, Eggleston DB (2006) Human and natural predators combine to alter behavior and reduce survival of Caribbean spiny lobster. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 334:196- 205. Pauly D, Christensen V, Guénette S, Pitcher TJ, Sumaila UR, Walters CJ, Watson R, Zeller D (2002) Towards sustainability in world ﬁsheries. Nature 418: 689-695. Pearson, R.G., Munro, J.L., (1991).Growth, mortality and recruitment rates of giant clams, Tridacna gigas and T. derasa, at Michaelmas Reef, central Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Aust. J. Mar. Freshw. Res. 42, 241– 262. Piet GJ, Jennings S (2005) Response of potential ﬁsh community indicators to ﬁshing. Journal of Marine Science 62:214-225. Pillans S, Ortiz JC, Pillans RD, Possingham H (2007) The impact of marine reserves on nekton diversity and community composition in subtropical eastern Australia. Biological Conservation 136:455-469. Pillans S, Pillans RD, Johnstone RW, Kraft PG, Haywood MDE, Possingham H (2005) Eﬀects of marine reserve protection on the mud crab Scylla serrata in a sex-biased ﬁshery in subtropical Australia. Marine Ecology Progress Series 295:201-213. Polunin NVC, Roberts CM (1993) Greater biomass and value of target coral-reef ﬁshes in two small Caribbean marine reserves. Marine Ecology Progress Series 100:167-176. Pomeroy R, Parks J, Watson L. (2004) How is your MPA doing? A guidebook of natural and social indicators for evaluating marine protected area management eﬀectiveness. Gland, Switzerland/Cambridge: IUCN. Pomeroy, RS, Watson, LM, Parks JE, Cid, GA (2005) How is your MPA doing? A methodology for evaluating the management eﬀectiveness of marine protected areas. Ocean & Coastal Management, 48:485-502. Pressey RL (2004) Conservation planning and biodiversity: Assembling the best data for the job. Conservation Biology 18:1677-1681. Pressey RL, Cowling RM (2001) Reserve selection algorithms and the real world. Conservation Biology 15:275-277. Pressey RL, Cabeza M, Watts ME, Cowling RM, Wilson KA (2007) Conservation planning in a changing world. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 22:583-592. Rakitin A, Kramer DL (1996) Eﬀect of a marine reserve on the distribution of coral reef ﬁshes in Barbados. Marine Ecology Progress Series 131:97-113. Rauschmayer, F., Wittmer, H. & Berghöfer, A. (2008). Institutional challenges for resolving conﬂicts between ﬁsheries and endangered species conservation. Marine Marine Ecology 8, 263–284. Ray GC (2004) Reconsidering ‘dangerous targets’ for marine protected areas. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 14:211-215. Rees, S., Attrill, M.J., Austen, M.C., Mangi, S.C., Richards, J. and Rodwell, L.D. (2010): Is there a win-win scenario for marine nature conservation? A case study of Lyme Bay, England. Ocean and Coastal Management. Volume 53, Issue 3, March 2010, Pages 135-145. Rice, M.A., Hickox, C., Zehra, I., (1989). Eﬀects of intensive ﬁshing eﬀort on the population structure of Quahogs,- Mercenaria mercenaria (Linnaeus 1758), in Narrangansett Bay. Journal of Shellﬁsh Research. 8, 345–354. 33 Richards, A.H., Bell, L.J., Bell, J.D., (1994). Inshore ﬁsheries resources of Solomon Islands. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 29, 90– 98. Rijnsdorp AD, Buys AM, Storbeck F, Visser EG (1998) Micro-scale distribution of beam trawl eﬀort in the southern North Sea between 1993 and 1996 in relation to the trawling frequency of the sea bed and the impact on benthic organisms. Journal of Marine Science 55:403-419. Roberts, C. M. (1995) Rapid build-up of ﬁsh biomass in a Caribbean marine reserve. Conservation Biology 9:815-826. Roberts CM (1995) Eﬀects of Fishing on the Ecosystem structure of Coral Reefs. Conservation Biology 9:988-995. Roberts, C.M., (1998) Sources, sinks, and the design of marine reserve networks. Fisheries 23, 16– 19. Roberts CM (2003) Ecological criteria for evaluating candidate sites for marine reserves. Ecological Applications 13:199-214. Roberts, C. M. & N. V. C. Polunin, (1991). Are marine reserves eﬀective in management of reef ﬁsheries? Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 1: 65–91. Roberts, C. M. & N. V. C. Polunin, (1993). Eﬀects of marine reserve protection on Northern Red Sea ﬁsh populations. Proceedings of the 7th International Coral Reef Symposium 2: 979–987. Roberts, C.M., Hawkins, J.P., (2000). Fully-protected marine reserves: a guide. WWF Endangered Seas Campaign, 1250 24th Street, NW, Washington, DC 20037, USA, and Environment Department, University of York, York, UK. Roberts, C.M., B. Halpern, S.R. Palumbi and R.R. Warner. (2001) Designing Networks of Marine Reserves: Why Small, Isolated Protected Areas Are Not Enough. Conservation Biology in Practice 2(3), 10-17. Roberts CM, Bohnsack JA, Gell F, Hawkins JP, Goodridge R (2001) Eﬀects of marine reserves on adjacent ﬁsheries. Science 294: 1920-1923. Roberts, C.M., J.A. Bohnsack, F.R. Gell, J.P. Hawkins and R. Goodridge. (2001). Eﬀects of marine reserves on adjacent ﬁsheries. Science, 294: 1920-1923. Roberts CM, Andelman S, Branch G, Bustamante RH, Castilla JS, Dugan J, Halpern BS, Laﬀerty KD, Leslie H, Lubchenco J, McArdle D, Possingham HP, Ruckelshaus M, Warner RR (2003) Application of ecological criteria in selecting marine reserves and developing reserves networks. Ecological Applications 13:215228. Robins CM, Wang Y, Die D (1998) The impact of global positioning systems and plotters on ﬁshing power in the northern prawn ﬁshery, Australia. Canadian Journal of Fish and Aquatic Sciences 55:1645- 1651. Rochet MJ (1998) Short-term eﬀects of ﬁshing on life history traits of ﬁshes. Journal of Marine Science 55:371-391. Rodgrigues ASL, Gastin KJ (2002) Optimisation in reserve selection procedures-why not? Biological Conservation 107:123-129. Rodwell LD, Barbier EB, Roberts CA, McClanahan TR (2003) The importance of habitat quality for marine reserve - ﬁshery linkages. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 60:171-181. 34 Roﬀ JC (2005) Conservation of marine biodiversity: too much diversity, too little co-operation. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 15:1-5. Roﬀ JC, Taylor ME (2000) National frameworks for marine conservation - a hierarchical geophysical approach. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 10:209-223. Rogers CS, Beets J (2001) Degradation of marine ecosystems and decline of ﬁshery resources in marine protected areas in the US Virgin Islands. Environmental Conservation 28:312-322. Rogers-Bennett L, Pearse JS (2001) Indirect beneﬁts of marine protected areas for juvenile abalone. Conservation Biology 15:642-647. Rowley RJ (1994) Case Studies and Reviews- Marine Reserves in ﬁsheries management. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 4:233-254. Russ, G.R.,(2002). Yet another review of marine reserves as reef ﬁshery management tools. In: Sale, P.F. (Ed.), Coral Reef Fishes: Dynamics and Diversity in a Complex Ecosystem. Academic Press, San Diego, pp. 421– 443. Russ G, Alcala AC (1996) Do marine reserves export adult ﬁsh biomass? Evidence from Apo Island, central Philippines. Marine Ecology Progress Series 132:1-9. Russ G, Alcala AC (1996a) Marine Reserves: Rates and Patterns of Recovery and Decline of Large Predatory Fish. Ecological Applications 6:947-961. Russ GR, Alcala AC (1998) Eﬀects of intense ﬁshing pressure on an assemblage of coral reef ﬁshes. Marine Ecology Progress Series 56:13-27. Russ G, Alcala AC, Maypa AP (2003) Spillover from marine reserves: the case of Naso vlamingii at Apo Island, the Philippines. Marine Ecology Progress Series 264:15-20. Russ G, Alcala AC, Maypa AP, Calumpong HP, White A (2004) Marine reserve beneﬁts local ﬁsheries. Ecological Applications 14:597-606. Russ G, Stockwell B, Alcala AC (2005) Inferring versus measuring rates of recovery in no-take reserves. Marine Ecology Progress Series 292:1-12. Russ GR, Alcala AC (2004a) Marine reserves: long-term protection is required for full recovery of predatory ﬁsh populations. Oecologia 138:1432-1939. Russ GR, Lou DC, Ferreira BP (1995) A long-term study on population structure of coral trout on reefs open and closed to ﬁshing in the central Great Barrier Reef. In. CRC Reef Research Centre, Townsville Australia, p 30 pages. Russell M (1997) Management implications learnt from closing and re-opening a coral reef to ﬁshing. Reef Research:10-11. Ruttenberg, B.I., (2001). Eﬀects of artisanal ﬁshing on marine communities in the Galapagos Islands. Conservation Biology. 15, 1691– 1699. Sala E et al. (1998) Temporal variability in abundance of the sea urchins Paracentrotus lividus and Arbacia lixula in the northwestern Mediterranean: comparison between a marine reserve and an unprotected area. Marine Ecology Progress Series 168:135-145. 35 Sala E, Aburto-Oropeza O, Paredes G, Thompson G (2003) Spawning aggregations and reproductive behaviour of reef ﬁshes in the Gulf of California. Bulletin of Marine Science 72: 103-121. Sale PF et al. (2005) Critical science gaps impede use of no-take ﬁshery reserves. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 20:74-80. Sanchez Lisazo, J. L., R. Goni, O. Renones, J. A. Garcia Charton, R. Galzin, J. T. Bayle, P. Sanchez Jerez, A. Perez Ruzafa & A. A. Ramos, (2000). Density dependence in marine protected populations: a review. Environmental conservation 27(2): 144–158. Sanchirico, J., Cochran, K and Emerson, P (2002) Marine Protected Areas: Economic and Social Implications, Discussion Paper 02–26 Resources for the Future, US. Sarker S, Justus J, Fuller T, Kelley C, Garson J, Mayﬁeld M (2005) Eﬀectiveness of Environmental Surrogates for the Selection of Conservation Area Networks. Conservation Biology 19:815-825. Scholz A, Bonzon K, Fujita R, Benjamin N, Woodling N, Black P, Steinback C. 2004. Participatory socioeconomic analysis: drawing on ﬁshermen’s knowledge for marine protected area planning in California. Marine Policy 28: 335–349. Schratzberger M, Jennings S (2002) Impacts of chronic trawling disturbance on meiofaunal communities. Marine Biology 141:991-1000. Shears NT, Babcock RC (2002) Marine reserves demonstrate top-down control of community structure on temperate reefs. Oecologia 132:131-142. Shears NT, Babcock RC (2003) Continuing trophic cascade eﬀects after 25 years of no-take marine reserve protection. Marine Ecology Progress Series 246:1-16. Shears NT, Graceb RV, Usmara NR., Kerrb V, Babcock RC (2006) Long-term trends in lobster populations in a partially protected vs. no-take Marine Park on the abundance of spiny lobster Jasus edwardsii. Biological Conservation 132, 222 -231. Shipp RL (2003) A perspective on marine reserves as a ﬁshery management tool. Fisheries 28:10-21. Sobel J. (1993) Conserving biological diversity through marine protected areas: a global challenge. Oceanus 36(3): 19–26. Steele JH, Beet AR (2003) Marine protected areas in ‘nonlinear’ ecosystems. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B: Biological Sciences 270(Supplement):230-233. Stefansson G, Walters C (2004) When can marine reserves improve ﬁsheries management? Ocean and Coastal management 47:197-205. Stem C, Margoluis R, Salafsky N, Brown M (2005) Monitoring and Evaluation in Conservation: a review of trends and approaches. Conservation Biology 19:295-309. Stevens T (2002) Rigor and representativeness in marine protected area design. Coastal Management 30:237-248. Stevens T, Connolly RM (2005) Local-scale mapping of benthic habitats to assess representation in a marine protected area. Marine and Freshwater Research 56:111-123. Stewert R, Noyce T, Possingham H (2003) Opportunity cost of ad hoc marine reserve design decisions: an example from South Australia. Marine Ecology Progress Series 253:25-38. 36 Stelzenmuller, V., Maynou, F., Martın, P., (2007). Spatial assessment of beneﬁts of a coastal Mediterranean marine protected area. Biological Conservation 136, 571–583. Stobutzki I, Jones P, Miller M (2003) A comparison of ﬁsh bycatch communities between areas open and closed to prawn trawling in an Australian tropical ﬁshery. Journal of Marine Science 60:951-966. Stoner AW, Ray M (1996) Queen conch, Strombus gigas, in ﬁshed and unﬁshed locations of the Bahamas: Eﬀects of a marine ﬁshery reserve on adults, juveniles, and larval production. Fish Bull 94: 551-565. Stowar, M., De’ath, G., Doherty, P., Johansson, C., Speare, P. and Venables, B. (2008) Inﬂuence of zoning on midshelf shoals of the southern Great Barrier Reef. Report to the Marine and Tropical Sciences Research Facility. Reef and Rainforest Research Centre Limited, Cairns (106pp.). Stump N (2005) Marine protected areas in Australia: towards a coordinated rock lobster industry position. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 39:765-774. Sumaila UR (1998) Protected marine reserves as ﬁsheries management tools: a bioeconomic analysis. Fisheries Research 37:287-296. Sumaila UR, Gue´nette S, Alder J, Chuenpagdee R (2000) Addressing ecosystem eﬀects of ﬁshing using marine protected areas. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 57: 752-760. Sweatman, H., Cheal, A.J., Coleman, G.J., Emslie, M.J., Johns, K., Jonker, M., Miller, I.R. & Osborne, K. 2008, Long-term monitoring of the Great Barrier Reef: status report, Australian Institute of Marine Science 8, Townsville, Australia. Tawake AJP, Radikedike P, Aalbersberg B, Vuki V, Salafsky N (2001) Harvesting clams and data involving local communities in monitoring: A case in Fiji. Conservation In Practice 2: 32-35. Tegner MJ, Dayton PK (2000) Ecosystem eﬀects of ﬁshing in kelp forest communities. ICES Journal of Marine Science 57:579-589. Terlizzi A, Delos AL, Garaventa F, Faimali M, Geraci S (2004) Limited eﬀectiveness of marine protected areas: imposex in Hexaplex trunculas (Gastropoda, Muricidae) populations from Italian marine reserves. Marine Pollution Bulletin 48:164-192. Tewﬁk A, Beme C (2003) Eﬀects of natural barriers on the spillover of a marine mollusc: implications for ﬁsheries reserves. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 13:473-488. Thrush SF et al. (2001) Fishing disturbance and marine biodiversity: the role of habitat structure in simple soft-sediment systems. Marine Ecology Progress Series 223:227-286. Tuck GN, Possingham H. (2000) Marine protected areas for spatially structured exploited stocks. Marine Ecology Progress Series 192. Tundi Agardy M (1994) Advances in marine conservation: the role of marine protected areas. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 9:267-270. Tunesi L, Diviacco G (1993) Environmental and socio-economic criteria for the establishment of marine coastal parks. International Journal of Environmental Studies 43:253-259. Tupper M, Rudd MA (2002) Species-speciﬁc impacts of a small marine reserve on reef ﬁsh production and 37 ﬁshing productivity in the Turks and Caicos Islands. Environmental Conservation 29:484-492. Turpie JK, Beckley LE, Katua SM (2000) Biogeography and the selection of priority areas for conservation of South African coastal ﬁshes. Biological Conservation 92:59-72. Tuya, F.C., Soboil, M.L., Kido, J., (2000) An assessment of the eﬀectiveness of Marine Protected Areas in the San Juan Islands, Washington, USA. ICES Journal of Marine Science. 57, 1218–1226. Wallace, S.S., (1999) Evaluating the eﬀects of three forms of marine reserve on northern abalone populations in British Columbia, Canada. Conservation Biology 13, 882– 887. Wantiez L, Thollot P, Kulbicki M (1997) Eﬀects of marine reserves on coral reef ﬁsh communities from ﬁve islands in New Caledonia. Coral reefs 16:215-224. Ward TJ, Heinemann D, Evans N (2001) The Role of Marine Reserves as Fisheries Management Tools: A Review of Concepts, Evidence and International Experience. Bureau of Rural Sciences, Canberra, Australia, 192pp. Ward TJ (2002) Giving up ﬁshing ground to reserves: the costs and beneﬁts. Proceedings of the World Congress on Aquatic Protected Areas:19-29. Ward TJ, Vanderklift MA, Nicholls AO, Kenchington RA (1999) Selecting marine reserves using habitats and species assemblages as surrogates for biological diversity. Ecological Applications 9(2): 691- 698. Warman LD, Sinclair ARE, Scuder GGE, Klinkenberg B, Pressey RL (2004) Sensitivity about systematic reserve selection to decisions about scale, biological data and targets: case study from southern British Columbia. Conservation Biology 18:655-666. Watson, M., Ormond, R.F.G., (1994). Eﬀect of an artisanal ﬁshery on the ﬁsh and urchin populations of a Kenyan coral reef. Marine Ecological Progress Series. 109, 115–129. Wescott G (2006) The long and winding road: The development of a comprehensive, adequate and representative system of highly protected marine protected areas in Victoria, Australia. Ocean & Coastal Management 49:905–922. Westera M, Lavery P, Hyndes G (2003) Diﬀerences in recreationally targeted ﬁshes between protected and ﬁshed areas of a coral reef marine park. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 294:145-168. White, A. T., and G. C. Savina. 1987. Reef ﬁsh yield and non-reef catch of Apo Island, Negros, Philippines. Asian Marine Biology 4:67–76. White, A. T., C. A. Courtney, and A. Salamanca. (2002) Experience with marine protected area planning and management in the Philippines. Coastal Management 30:1–26. Wielgus, J., Ballantyne IV, F., Sala, E., Gerber, L.R., (2007) Viability analysis of reef ﬁsh populations based on limited demographic information. Conservation Biology 21, 447–454. Wielgus, J., Chadwick-Furman, N.E., Zeitouni, N., Shechter, M., (2003) Eﬀects of coral reef attribute damage on recreational welfare. Marine Resource Economics 18, 225–237. Wielgus, J., Sala, E and Gerber, L (2008) Assessing the ecological and economic beneﬁts of a no-take marine reserve Ecological Economics, 67, pp 32 – 40. Williamson DH, Russ G, Ayling AM (2004) No-take marine reserves increase abundance and biomass of reef ﬁsh on inshore fringing reefs of the Great Barrier Reef. Environmental Conservation 31:149-159. 38 Willis TJ, Millar RB (2005) Using marine reserves to estimate ﬁsh mortality. Ecology Letters 8:47-52. Willis TJ, Millar RB, Babcock RC (2003) Protection of exploited ﬁsh in temperate regions: high density and biomass of snapper Pagrus auratus (Sparidae) in northern New Zealand marine reserves. Journal of Applied Ecology 44:214-227. Willis TJ, Millar RB, Babcock RC, Tolimieri (2003) Burdens of evidence and the beneﬁts of marine reserves: putting Descartes before des horse? Environmental Conservation 30:97-103. Winberg PC, Lynch TP, Murray A, Jones A, Davis A (2007) The importance of spatial scale for the conservation of tidal ﬂat macrobenthos: An example from New South Wales, Australia. Biological Conservation 134:310-320. Zeller D, Russ G (2000) Population estimates and size structure of Plectropomus leopardus (Pisces: Serranidae) in relation to no-ﬁshing zones: mark-release-resighting and underwater visual census. Marine & Freshwater Research 51:221-228. Zeller D, Stoute SL, Russ G (2003) Movements of reef ﬁsh across marine reserve boundaries: eﬀects of manipulating a density gradient. Marine Ecology Progress Series 254:269-280. 39

More than Fishy Business: A Literature Review of marine parks

Log In

Reset Password